EMBRYOPSIDA Pirani & Prado

Gametophyte dominant, independent, multicellular, initially ±globular, not motile, branched; showing gravitropism; glycolate oxidase +, glycolate metabolism in leaf peroxisomes [glyoxysomes], acquisition of phenylalanine lysase* [PAL], flavonoid synthesis*, microbial terpene synthase-like genes +, triterpenoids produced by CYP716 enzymes, CYP73 and phenylpropanoid metabolism [development of phenolic network], xyloglucans in primary cell wall, side chains charged; plant poikilohydrous [protoplasm dessication tolerant], ectohydrous [free water outside plant physiologically important]; thalloid, leafy, with single-celled apical meristem, tissues little differentiated, rhizoids +, unicellular; chloroplasts several per cell, pyrenoids 0; centrioles/centrosomes in vegetative cells 0, microtubules with γ-tubulin along their lengths [?here], interphase microtubules form hoop-like system; metaphase spindle anastral, predictive preprophase band + [with microtubules and F-actin; where new cell wall will form], phragmoplast + [cell wall deposition centrifugal, from around the anaphase spindle], plasmodesmata +; antheridia and archegonia +, jacketed*, surficial; blepharoplast +, centrioles develop de novo, bicentriole pair coaxial, separate at midpoint, centrioles rotate, associated with basal bodies of cilia, multilayered structure + [4 layers: L1, L4, tubules; L2, L3, short vertical lamellae] (0), spline + [tubules from L1 encircling spermatid], basal body 200-250 nm long, associated with amorphous electron-dense material, microtubules in basal end lacking symmetry, stellate array of filaments in transition zone extended, axonemal cap 0 [microtubules disorganized at apex of cilium]; male gametes [spermatozoids] with a left-handed coil, cilia 2, lateral, asymmetrical; oogamy; sporophyte +*, multicellular, growth 3-dimensional*, cuticle +*, plane of first cell division transverse [with respect to long axis of archegonium/embryo sac], sporangium and upper part of seta developing from epibasal cell [towards the archegonial neck, exoscopic], with at least transient apical cell [?level], initially surrounded by and dependent on gametophyte, placental transfer cells +, in both sporophyte and gametophyte, wall ingrowths develop early; suspensor/foot +, cells at foot tip somewhat haustorial; sporangium +, single, terminal, dehiscence longitudinal; meiosis sporic, monoplastidic, MTOC [= MicroTubule Organizing Centre] associated with plastid, sporocytes 4-lobed, cytokinesis simultaneous, preceding nuclear division, quadripolar microtubule system +; wall development both centripetal and centrifugal, 1000 spores/sporangium, sporopollenin in the spore wall* laid down in association with trilamellar layers [white-line centred lamellae; tripartite lamellae]; plastid transmission maternal; nuclear genome [1C] <1.4 pg, main telomere sequence motif TTTAGGG, KNOX1 and KNOX2 [duplication] and LEAFY genes present, ethylene involved in cell elongation; chloroplast genome with close association between trnL_UAA and trnF_GAA genes [precursors for starch synthesis], tufA, minD, minE genes moved to nucleus; mitochondrial trnS(gcu) and trnN(guu) genes +.

Many of the bolded characters in the characterization above are apomorphies of more or less inclusive clades of streptophytes along the lineage leading to the embryophytes, not apomorphies of crown-group embryophytes per se.

All groups below are crown groups, nearly all are extant. Characters mentioned are those of the immediate common ancestor of the group, [] contains explanatory material, () features common in clade, exact status unclear.

POLYSPORANGIOPHYTA†

Sporophyte well developed, branched, branching dichotomous, potentially indeterminate; hydroids +; stomata on stem; sporangia several, terminal; spore walls not multilamellate [?here].

II. TRACHEOPHYTA / VASCULAR PLANTS

Sporophyte long lived, cells polyplastidic, photosynthetic red light response, stomata open in response to blue light; plant homoiohydrous [water content of protoplasm relatively stable]; control of leaf hydration passive; plant endohydrous [physiologically important free water inside plant]; PIN[auxin efflux facilitators]-mediated polar auxin transport; (condensed or nonhydrolyzable tannins/proanthocyanidins +); borate cross-linked rhamnogalactan II, xyloglucans with side chains uncharged [?level], in secondary walls of vascular and mechanical tissue; lignins +; roots +, often ≤1 mm across, root hairs and root cap +; stem apex multicellular [several apical initials, no tunica], with cytohistochemical zonation, plasmodesmata formation based on cell lineage; vascular development acropetal, tracheids +, in both protoxylem and metaxylem, G- and S-types; sieve cells + [nucleus degenerating]; endodermis +; stomata numerous, involved in gas exchange; leaves +, vascularized, spirally arranged, blades with mean venation density ca 1.8 mm/mm² [to 5 mm/mm²], all epidermal cells with chloroplasts; sporangia in strobili, sporangia adaxial, columella 0; tapetum glandular; sporophyte-gametophyte junction lacking dead gametophytic cells, mucilage, ?position of transfer cells; MTOCs not associated with plastids, basal body 350-550 nm long, stellate array in transition region initially joining microtubule triplets; archegonia embedded/sunken [only neck protruding]; embryo suspensor +, shoot apex developing away from micropyle/archegonial neck [from hypobasal cell, endoscopic], root lateral with respect to the longitudinal axis of the embryo [plant homorhizic].

Sporophyte growth ± monopodial, branching spiral; roots endomycorrhizal [with Glomeromycota], lateral roots +, endogenous; G-type tracheids +, with scalariform-bordered pits; leaves with apical/marginal growth, venation development basipetal, growth determinate; sporangium dehiscence by a single longitudinal slit; cells polyplastidic, MTOCs diffuse, perinuclear, migratory; blepharoplasts +, paired, with electron-dense material, centrioles on periphery, male gametes multiciliate; nuclear genome [1C] 7.6-10 pg [mode]; chloroplast long single copy ca 30kb inversion [from psbM to ycf2]; mitochondrion with loss of 4 genes, absence of numerous group II introns; LITTLE ZIPPER proteins.

LIGNOPHYTA†

Sporophyte woody; stem branching axillary, buds exogenous; lateral root origin from the pericycle; cork cambium + [producing cork abaxially], vascular cambium bifacial [producing phloem abaxially and xylem adaxially].

SEED PLANTS† / SPERMATOPHYTA†

Growth of plant bipolar [plumule/stem and radicle/root independent, roots positively geotropic]; plants heterosporous; megasporangium surrounded by cupule [i.e. = unitegmic ovule, cupule = integument]; pollen lands on ovule; megaspore germination endosporic, female gametophyte initially retained on the plant, free-nuclear/syncytial to start with, walls then coming to surround the individual nuclei, process proceeding centripetally.

EXTANT SEED PLANTS

Plant evergreen; nicotinic acid metabolised to trigonelline, (cyanogenesis via tyrosine pathway); microbial terpene synthase-like genes 0; primary cell walls rich in xyloglucans and/or glucomannans, 25-30% pectin [Type I walls]; lignin chains started by monolignol dimerization [resinols common], particularly with guaiacyl and p-hydroxyphenyl [G + H] units [sinapyl units uncommon, no Maüle reaction]; roots often ≥1 mm across, stele diarch to pentarch, xylem and phloem originating on alternating radii, cork cambium deep seated, gravitropism response fast; stem apical meristem complex [with quiescent centre, etc.], plasmodesma density in SAM 1.6-6.2[mean]/μm² [interface-specific plasmodesmatal network]; eustele +, protoxylem endarch, endodermis 0; wood homoxylous, tracheids and rays alone, tracheid/tracheid pits circular, bordered; mature sieve tube/cell lacking functioning nucleus, sieve tube plastids with starch grains; phloem fibres +; cork cambium superficial; leaf nodes 1:1, a single trace leaving the vascular sympodium; leaf vascular bundles amphicribral; guard cells the only epidermal cells with chloroplasts, stomatal pore with active opening in response to leaf hydration, control by abscisic acid, metabolic regulation of water use efficiency, etc.; branching by axillary buds, exogenous; prophylls two, lateral; leaves with petiole and lamina, development basipetal, lamina simple; sporangia borne on sporophylls; spores not dormant; microsporophylls aggregated in indeterminate cones/strobili; grains monosulcate, aperture in ana- position [distal], primexine + [involved in exine pattern formation with deposition of sporopollenin from tapetum there], exine and intine homogeneous, exine alveolar/honeycomb; ovules with parietal tissue [= crassinucellate], megaspore tetrad linear, functional megaspore single, chalazal, sporopollenin 0; gametophyte ± wholly dependent on sporophyte, development initially endosporic [apical cell 0, rhizoids 0, etc.]; male gametophyte with tube developing from distal end of grain, male gametes two, developing after pollination, with cell walls; embryo cellular ab initio, suspensor short-minute, embryonic axis straight [shoot and root at opposite ends], primary root/radicle produces taproot [= allorhizic], cotyledons 2; embryo ± dormant; chloroplast ycf2 gene in inverted repeat, trans splicing of five mitochondrial group II introns, rpl6 gene absent; ??whole nuclear genome duplication [ζ/zeta duplication event], 2C genome size (0.71-)1.99(-5.49) pg, two copies of LEAFY gene, PHY gene duplications [three - [BP [A/N + C/O]] - copies], 5.8S and 5S rDNA in separate clusters.

IID. ANGIOSPERMAE / MAGNOLIOPHYTA

Lignans, O-methyl flavonols, dihydroflavonols, triterpenoid oleanane, apigenin and/or luteolin scattered, [cyanogenesis in ANA grade?], lignin also with syringyl units common [G + S lignin, positive Maüle reaction - syringyl:guaiacyl ratio more than 2-2.5:1], hemicelluloses as xyloglucans; root cap meristem closed (open); pith relatively inconspicuous, lateral roots initiated immediately to the side of [when diarch] or opposite xylem poles; epidermis probably originating from inner layer of root cap, trichoblasts [differentiated root hair-forming cells] 0, hypodermis suberised and with Casparian strip [= exodermis]; shoot apex with tunica-corpus construction, tunica 2-layered; starch grains simple; primary cell wall mostly with pectic polysaccharides, poor in mannans; tracheid:tracheid [end wall] plates with scalariform pitting, multiseriate rays +, wood parenchyma +; sieve tubes enucleate, sieve plates with pores (0.1-)0.5-10< µm across, cytoplasm with P-proteins, not occluding pores of plate, companion cell and sieve tube from same mother cell; ?phloem loading/sugar transport; nodes 1:?; dark reversal P_fr → P_r; protoplasm dessication tolerant [plant poikilohydric]; stomata randomly oriented, brachyparacytic [ends of subsidiary cells ± level with ends of guard cells], outer stomatal ledges producing vestibule, reduction in stomatal conductance with increasing CO₂ concentration; lamina formed from the primordial leaf apex, margins toothed, development of venation acropetal, overall growth ± diffuse, secondary veins pinnate, fine venation hierarchical-reticulate, (1.7-)4.1(-5.7) mm/mm², vein endings free; flowers perfect, pedicellate, ± haplomorphic, protogynous; parts free, numbers variable, development centripetal; P = T, petal-like, each with a single trace, outer members not sharply differentiated from the others, not enclosing the floral bud; A many, filament not sharply distinguished from anther, stout, broad, with a single trace, anther introrse, tetrasporangiate, sporangia in two groups of two [dithecal], each theca dehiscing longitudinally by a common slit, ± embedded in the filament, walls with at least outer secondary parietal cells dividing, endothecium +, cells elongated at right angles to long axis of anther; tapetal cells binucleate; microspore mother cells in a block, microsporogenesis successive, walls developing by centripetal furrowing; pollen subspherical, tectum continuous or microperforate, ektexine columellate, endexine restricted to the apertural regions, thin, compact, intine in apertural areas thick, orbicules +, pollenkitt +; nectary 0; carpels present, superior, free, several, spiral, ascidiate [postgenital occlusion by secretion], stylulus at most short [shorter than ovary], hollow, cavity not lined by distinct epidermal layer, stigma ± decurrent, carinal, dry; suprastylar extragynoecial compitum +; ovules few [?1]/carpel, marginal, anatropous, bitegmic, micropyle endostomal, outer integument 2-3 cells across, often largely subdermal in origin, inner integument 2-3 cells across, often dermal in origin, parietal tissue 1-3 cells across, nucellar cap?; megasporocyte single, hypodermal, functional megaspore lacking cuticle; female gametophyte lacking chlorophyll, four-celled [one module, egg and polar nuclei sisters]; ovule not increasing in size between pollination and fertilization; pollen grains bicellular at dispersal, germinating in less than 3 hours, siphonogamy, pollen tube unbranched, growing towards the ovule, between cells, growth rate (ca 10-)80-20,000 µm h^-1, tube apex of pectins, wall with callose, lumen with callose plugs, penetration of ovules via micropyle [porogamous], whole process takes ca 18 hours, distance to first ovule 1.1-2.1 mm; male gametophytes tricellular, gametes 2, lacking cell walls, ciliae 0, double fertilization +, ovules aborting unless fertilized; fruit indehiscent, P deciduous; mature seed much larger than fertilized ovule, small [<5 mm long], dry [no sarcotesta], exotestal; endosperm +, ?diploid [one polar nucleus + male gamete], cellular, development heteropolar [first division oblique, micropylar end initially with a single large cell, divisions uniseriate, chalazal cell smaller, divisions in several planes], copious, oily and/or proteinaceous, embryo short [<¼ length of seed]; plastid and mitochondrial transmission maternal; Arabidopsis-type telomeres [(TTTAGGG)_n]; nuclear genome [2C] (0.57-)1.45(-3.71) [1 pg = 10⁹ base pairs], ??whole nuclear genome duplication [ε/epsilon event]; ndhB gene 21 codons enlarged at the 5' end, single copy of LEAFY and RPB2 gene, knox genes extensively duplicated [A1-A4], AP1/FUL gene, palaeo AP3 and PI genes [paralogous B-class genes] +, with "DEAER" motif, SEP3/LOFSEP and three copies of the PHY gene, [PHYB [PHYA + PHYC]]; chloroplast IR expansions, chlB, -L, -N, trnP-GGG genes 0.

[NYMPHAEALES [AUSTROBAILEYALES [MONOCOTS [[CHLORANTHALES + MAGNOLIIDS] [CERATOPHYLLALES + EUDICOTS]]]]]: wood fibres +; axial parenchyma diffuse or diffuse-in-aggregates; pollen monosulcate [anasulcate], tectum reticulate-perforate [here?]; ?genome duplication; "DEAER" motif in AP3 and PI genes lost, gaps in these genes.

[AUSTROBAILEYALES [MONOCOTS [[CHLORANTHALES + MAGNOLIIDS] [CERATOPHYLLALES + EUDICOTS]]]]: phloem loading passive, via symplast, plasmodesmata numerous; vessel elements with scalariform perforation plates in primary xylem; essential oils in specialized cells [lamina and P ± pellucid-punctate]; tension wood + [reaction wood: with gelatinous fibres, G-fibres, on adaxial side of branch/stem junction]; anther wall with outer secondary parietal cell layer dividing; tectum reticulate; nucellar cap + [character lost where in eudicots?]; 12BP [4 amino acids] deletion in P1 gene.

[MONOCOTS [[CHLORANTHALES + MAGNOLIIDS] [CERATOPHYLLALES + EUDICOTS]]] / MESANGIOSPERMAE: benzylisoquinoline alkaloids +; sesquiterpene synthase subfamily a [TPS-a] [?level], polyacetate derived anthraquinones + [?level]; outer epidermal walls of root elongation zone with cellulose fibrils oriented transverse to root axis; P more or less whorled, 3-merous [?here]; pollen tube growth intra-gynoecial; extragynoecial compitum 0; carpels plicate [?here]; embryo sac monosporic [spore chalazal], 8-celled, bipolar [Polygonum type], antipodal cells persisting; endosperm triploid.

[CERATOPHYLLALES + EUDICOTS]: ethereal oils 0 [or next node up]; fruit dry [very labile].

EUDICOTS: (Myricetin +), asarone 0 [unknown in some groups, + in some asterids]; root epidermis derived from root cap [?Buxaceae, etc.]; (vessel elements with simple perforation plates in primary xylem); nodes 3:3; stomata anomocytic; flowers (dimerous), cyclic; protandry common; K/outer P members with three traces, ("C" +, with a single trace); A ?, filaments fairly slender, anthers basifixed; microsporogenesis simultaneous, pollen tricolpate, apertures in pairs at six points of the young tetrad [Fischer's rule], cleavage centripetal, wall with endexine; G with complete postgenital fusion, stylulus/style solid [?here], short [<2 x length of ovary]; seed coat?; palaeotetraploidy event.

[PROTEALES [TROCHODENDRALES [BUXALES + CORE EUDICOTS]]]: (axial/receptacular nectary +).

[TROCHODENDRALES [BUXALES + CORE EUDICOTS]]: mitochondrial rps2 gene lost.

[BUXALES + CORE EUDICOTS]: mitochondrial rps11 gene lost.

CORE EUDICOTS / GUNNERIDAE: (ellagic and gallic acids +); leaf margins serrate; compitum + [one position]; micropyle?; γ genome duplication [allopolyploidy, 4x x 2x], x = 3 x 7 = 21, 2C genome size (0.79-)1.05(-1.41) pg, PI-dB motif +; small deletion in the 18S ribosomal DNA common.

[ROSIDS ET AL. + ASTERIDS ET AL.] / PENTAPETALAE / [SANTALALES, CARYOPHYLLALES, SAXIFRAGALES, DILLENIALES, VITALES, ROSIDAE, [BERBERIDOPSIDALES + ASTERIDAE]: root apical meristem closed; (cyanogenesis also via [iso]leucine, valine and phenylalanine pathways); flowers rather stereotyped: 5-merous, parts whorled; P = K + C, K enclosing the flower in bud, with three or more traces, odd K adaxial, C with single trace; A = 2x K/C, in two whorls, alternating, (many, but then usually fasciculate and/or centrifugal); pollen tricolporate; G [(3, 4) 5], when 5 opposite K, whorled, placentation axile, style +, stigma not decurrent, compitum + [one position]; endosperm nuclear/coenocytic; fruit dry, dehiscent, loculicidal [when a capsule]; floral nectaries with CRABSCLAW expression, RNase-based gametophytic incompatibility system present.

Phylogeny. Prior to the seventh version of this site asterids were part of a major polytomy that included rosids, Berberidopsidales, Santalales, and Caryophyllales, but then the order of branching below the asterids seemed to be stabilizing, perhaps with a superasterid clade [Berberidopsidales [Santalales [Caryophyllales + Asterids]]] while rosid relationships seemed to be [Saxifragales [Vitales + Rosids]]]. However, recent work suggests a polytomy is indeed probably the best way to visualize relationships around here at present. Thus Y.-L. Qiu et al. (2024) recovered the unexpected topology [[Berberidopsidales + Santalales] [[Dilleniales + Caryophyllales] [Asterids]]] here. For further discussion of relationships at the base of asterids and rosids, see the Pentapetalae

[BERBERIDOPSIDALES + ASTERIDAE]: ?

BERBERIDOPSIDALES Doweld  -  Main Tree.

Reaction wood?; pith heterogeneous; crystals +; petiole bundle annular; stomata cyclocytic; style +; micropyle endostomal; seed endotestal; endosperm development?, embryo? - 2 families, 3 genera, 4 species.

Includes Aextoxicaceae, Berberidopsidaceae.

Note: In all node characterizations, boldface denotes a possible apomorphy, (....) denotes a feature the exact status of which in the clade is uncertain, [....] includes explanatory material; other text lists features found pretty much throughout the clade. Note that the precise node to which many characters, particularly the more cryptic ones, should be assigned is unclear. This is partly because homoplasy is very common, in addition, basic information for all too many characters is very incomplete, frequently coming from taxa well embedded in the clade of interest and so making the position of any putative apomorphy uncertain. Then there are the not-so-trivial issues of how character states are delimited and ancestral states are reconstructed (see above).

Age. Magallón and Castillo (2009) estimate the crown-group age of Berberidopsidales to be around 88.8 My; ca 96.4 Ma is the age in Tank et al. (2015: Table S2), somewhat over 60 Ma in the Palaeocene in Menegoz et al. (2024) but only ca 27.1 Ma in Magallón et al. (2015).

Evolution: Divergence & Distribution. There is notably little speciation in this clade (e.g. Tank et al. 2015).

For pollen evolution, see Y. Yu et al. (2018). Berberidopsidales have large seeds (Moles et al. 2005a; Sims 2012: 1 species measured), but it is difficult to generalize meaningfully about a group so small.

It has been suggested that the floral development of Berberidopsis corallina is a "link" in the evolution of the flower of core eudicots (Ronse De Craene 2004, 2007), and that the floral morphology of Aextoxicon, with features like rather variable numbers of sepals and petals, both of which are spirally arranged, are also consistent with this idea (Ronse De Craene & Stuppy 2010). However, if Santalales are basal to Berberidopsidales in the clade immediately leading to the asterids, as in Moore et al. (2010) and in particular, H.-T. Li et al. (2019), the significance of such features is less clear (see also Ronse de Craene & Brockington 2013; Doyle 2013).

Chemistry, Morphology, etc.. Carlquist (2003b) details the extensive if probably largely plesiomorphic similarities in the wood of the two families. Possible synapomorphies, however, include the strong differences between the procumbent cells of the multiseriate parts of the rays and the square to upright cells in the uniseriate portions and also the dark-staining deposits in axial parenchyma and rays. Other details of the vegetative anatomy show (apomorphic?) similarities between the two. Aextoxicon has few druses but numerous rhombic crystals presumably of calcium oxalate; Baas (1984) reported crystals in the leaves of all three genera of Berberidopsidaceae, although druses seem to be commonest. For stomatal morphology, see also P. Soltis and Soltis (2004).

Phylogeny. There has long been good support for this clade (e.g. D. Soltis et al. 1999: three-gene tree). However, does Streptothamnus belong?, perhaps = Malpighiales (Ronse de Craene 2017a).

Synonymy: Berberidopsidanae Thorne & Reveal, Aextoxicales Reveal

1. AEXTOXICACEAE Engler & Gilg, nom. cons. - Aextoxicon punctatum Ruiz & Pavón  -  Back to Berberidopsidales

Evergreen tree; chemistry?; true tracheids +; sclereids +; indumentum of peltate scales; leaves (sub)opposite, lamina vernation conduplicate, margins entire; plant dioecious; inflorescence a raceme, (in threes, branching from basal prophylls), axillary; flowers (4) 5 (6)-merous, enveloped by bracteoles ["calyptra"]; K spiral, thin, deciduous, C spiral, broadly clawed, vein single, massive; nectaries 2-lobed, alternating with and internal to A; staminate flowers: A = and opposite K, filaments long, relatively stout, nectaries flattened; G vestigial; carpelate flowers: staminodia +, alternating with C; G 1, stylulus ab?axially curved, apically bilobed; ovules 2/carpel, marginal, pendulous, outer integument 2-3 cells across, hooded, inner integument 5-7 cells across, nucellus massive [ca 13 cells across?], strongly beaked, funicle quite long, obturator +; fruit a dry drupe, 1-seeded; seeds carunculate, ruminate; coat tanniniferous, ca 6 cells across, cell walls thin; endosperm +, ?development, embryo ± transverse, long, cotyledons transversely folded, broad and flattened, cordate-orbicular; n = 16, x = 11 (?15, ?16).

1 [list]/1. C. Chile. Map: from Donoso Z. (1994) and Menegoz et al. (2024: Fig. 1). [Photos - Flower, Flower, Flower, Flower, Fruit, Habit]

• Aextoxicaceae are dioecious evergreen trees that can be recognised by their opposite, entire exstipulate leaves that are covered with peltate scales and by their pendulous, racemose inflorescence. The petioles are almost pulvinate at the apex and the base and the lamina appears to be minutely peltate. The flower buds are covered by bracteoles and when they fall off, the almost scale-like sepals fall off with them.

Chemistry, Morphology, etc.. Sclereids are found in all vegetative parts of the plant; those of the leaf blade are about half the thickness of the blade in length. The stomata are weakly actinocylic, with 5-7 subsidiary cells. The pith is notably heterogeneous. Although the stigma is bilobed, there is only a single carpel (Ronse DeCraene & Stuppy 2010: a flower with two carpels was once seen). The endocarp appears to split particularly readily along two vertical lines. The embryo is more or less transverse to the long axis of the seed.

For a general account, see Kubitzki (2006b), for some anatomy, see Pax and Hoffmann (1917), for floral morphology, see Ronse de Craene and Stuppy (2010), and for ovule morphology, see Mauritzon (1936a). For fruit and stem anatomy, see Gentry et al. 53436, for leaf anatomy, see Solomon & Solomon 4420.

Previous relationships. Aextoxicaceae have been included in a very heterogeneous Celastrales (Cronquist 1981), placed in Euphorbiales (Takhtajan 1997), or linked with Saxifragales (Qiu et al. 1998).

2. BERBERIDOPSIDACEAE Takhtajan  - Back to Berberidopsidales

Woody evergreen scramblers; isoleucine-derived cyanogenic glycosides +, ellagic acid 0; cork?; vessels solitary, scalariform; fibres non-septate, pits bordered; wood parenchyma vasicentric or apotracheal; stomata bicyclic/cyclocytic; leaves ?spiral; inflorescences terminal; T +; A 8-11; G [3-5], placentation parietal; ovules many/carpel, epi- or pleurotropous, micropyle (bistomal), outer integument ca 4 cells across, inner integument ca 4 cells across; fruit a berry; exotestal cells enlarged, fleshy, endotestal cells palisade, lignified, w/single crystal, endotegmen subpersistent; endosperm copious, ?development, embryo short; n = ?21, x = 11 (?15, ?16), nuclear genome [1 C] (0.141-)1.215(-10.453) pg.

2 [list]/4. Chile, E. Australia. Map: from Veldkamp (1984) and Menegoz et al. (2024: Fig. 1). [Photo - Habit, Flower/Fruit.]

Age. Crown-group Berberidopsidaceae are (75.1-)45.8(-19.9) Ma (Menegoz et al. 2024).

2A. Berberidopsis J. D. Hooker

Lamina entire to dentate; P +, spiral, (9-)12(-15), all except the outer C-like, inner members with fewer veins; nectary outside A, disciform; A (6-)8-11(-13), filaments v. short, stout, connective broad, muriculate, apical connective appendage +; pollen tectum imperforate, (striate); style stout, hollow, stigma inconspicuous; K deciduous; raphe conspicuous ["sausage-shaped"].

1/3. Southern Chile, the Coastal Cordillera, and Australia, Queensland and New South Wales.

Age. Menegoz et al. (2024) suggested that the crown-group age of Berberidopsis was (16.8-)9.8(-4.2) Ma.

2B. Streptothamnus moorei F. Mueller

Leaves ?2-ranked, lamina entire, venation palmate; K 5, quincuncial, C 5, quincuncial; A many, filaments moderate, connective apiculate; pollen tectum perforate, ± reticulate; nectary 0; stigma peltate; K persistent, chalazal arillode +; exotegmic cells ± lignified, elongated periclinally.

1/1. Australia - Queensland and New South Wales.

• Berberidopsidaceae are often woody scramblers that can be recognised by their exstipulate leaf blades; the veins run straight into the spines, when present. The fruit is a berry crowned by the persistent style base.

Evolution: Divergence & Distribution. Given the crown-group age of Berberidopsis of some (16.8-)9.8(-4.2) Ma, a long distance dispersal event/events seem the most likely explanation of the Australian-south South American distribution of the genus (Menegoz et al. 2024), and also the presence of Aextoxicum in Chile..

Genes & Genomes. C. Zhang et al. (2020) found a whole genome duplication here.

Chemistry, Morphology, etc.. Leaves of Berberidopsis are weakly involute in bud and are not at all imbricated.

Van Heel (1977) emphasized that the ovules of Berberidopsis were borne directly on the carpel wall, not on placentae as in Salicaceae and Achariaceae. In Streptothamnus there is no necariferous disc.

Some information is taken from Kubitzki (2006b: general), Miller (1975: anatomy), Baas (1984: anatomy), Jaroszewski et al. (1998: cyanogenic glycosides), Ronse De Craene (2004, 2017a), floral morpology, van Heel (1979, 1984: seed, pollen), and Takhtajan (1992: seed).

Previous Relationships. Berberidopsidaceae have been included in Flacourtiaceae by Cronquist (1981) and in Violales by Takhtajan (1997) because of their parietal placentation.