I

ichnotaxon: "a taxon based on the fossilized work of an organism" (International Code of Zoological Nomenclature), for example, the galleries made by mining insects in a fossilised leaf, usually genus + species, see also taxon.

idioblast: literally, a unique cell, a clearly distinct, specialised and/or differentiated cell, e.g. sclereidal idioblast, myrosinase idioblast; not really a very helpful term, and it can often be omitted or simply replaced by "cell".

imbricate: in general, of organs overlapping in such a way that part is covered, part exposed, of aestivation, the parts having the edges overlapping in the bud such that at least some parts have one edge oustide, the other inside, see cochleate, contorted, contortiplicate, crumpled, decussate, quincuncial, c.f. open, valvate.

imparipinnate = odd pinnate.

imperfect: of flowers, lacking either functional carpels or stamens and thus either either staminate or carpellate, c.f. perfect, see carpellate, neuter, staminate.

inaperturate: of pollen grains that apparently lack any apertures, also called omniaperturate, polyforate, pantoporate, c.f. anasulcate, colpate, colporate, porate, pororate, sulculate, tenuitate, trichotomosulcate, ulcerate and zona-aperturate.

incised: cut deeply, sharply and often irregularly (an intermediate condition between toothed and lobed).

in- (prefix): without, lacking.

included: enclosed, not protruding; of stamens, etc., in a corolla tube, c.f. exserted.

included phloem = interxylary phloem or successive cambia.

incompletely tenuinucellate: an ovule in which no nucellar cells separate the megasporocyte(s)/embryo sac from the epidermis laterally and there is an endothelium, but there are nucellar cells below the the embryo sac (see Endress 2003c), c.f. crassinucellate, nucellar cap, nucellar pad, tenuinucellate, weakly crassinucellate (different degrees of development of the nucellus or the epidermis covering it).

incrassate = thickened.

incumbent: of the orientation of an embryo, with the cotyledons lying face to face and folded sideways so that the radicle lies against the face of one of the cotyledons, c.f. accumbent, conduplicate, diplecolobous.

incumbent: in Orchidaceae, of the orientation of an anther, bent adaxially/inwards ca 90°, for other commonly-used terms specific to orchid flowers, see caudicula, column, hamulus, labellum, rostellum, massulae, sectile, stipes, tegula, viscidium, also epichile, hypochile.

incurved: bent or curved inwards, upwards, or adaxially, c.f. recurved.

indefinite: variable in number, numerous, = many; of stamens, more than twice as many as the petals or sepals; of ovules, more than fifteen or so, c.f. definite.

indehiscent: not opening at maturity, c.f. dehiscent.

indeterminate: of growth, a general term used when the apical meristem produces an unrestricted number of lateral organs, in particular, when the axis is not terminated by a flower (see loosely racemose) or by the abortion of the apex, c.f. determinate.

indole alkaloids: alkaloids that contain an indole ring, derived from phenylalanine or tryptophane; the indole ring itself is a six-membered benzene ring joined to a five-membered nitrogen-containing pyrrole ring - the two rings at the top left of the structures below.

Vincamine, C21 H26 N2 O3.

Yohimbine, C21 H26 N2 O3.

indumentum: the overall appearance of the epidermal appendages, e.g. hairs and/or scales, collectively, see arachnoid, arbuscular, canescent, hirsute, hispid, lepidote, puberulous, pubescent, sericeous, stellate, strigose, tomentose, villous (types), see also glabrate, glabrescent (both referring to persistence) and glabrous.

induplicate: of aestivation, valvate, the edges of a sepal or petal are not overlapping, but they are incurved when they meet an adjacent member, c.f. crumpled, decussate, open, reduplicate.

induplicate: of plicate leaves, esp. in palms, the units of the leaves having their adaxial surfaces facing each other, V-shaped, c.f. foliate, reduplicate.

indurated = hardened and rather inflexible.

indusium: a flap of tissue covering the sorus in some ferns; a concave pollen-cup surrounding the stigma in Goodeniaceae.

inertinite: fossilized charcoal in sedimentary rock produced by fires.

inferior: of an ovary, borne at least partly below the level of attachment of the other floral parts, c.f. superior, c.f. also epigynous, hypogynous, perigynous.

inflexed: bent sharply upwards, forwards or adaxially, c.f. deflexed.

inflorescence: that part of the stem above the uppermost node with foliage leaves that bears flowers, also, the groupings or arrangements in which these flowers are borne, c.f. infructescence, see inflorescence axis, peduncle (parts), also cymose, racemose, also determinate, indeterminate, also monotelic, polytelic, also anauxotelic, auxotelic, also synflorescence, also axillary, cauliflorous, ramiflorous, supra-axillary, terminal (general position).

inflorescence axis: the main axis of an inflorescence bearing inflorescence branches and/or flowers, c.f. peduncle, rachis.

inflorescence bract: an often more or less reduced leaf subtending a branch of the inflorescence or borne on the inflorescence axis below any branches or flowers, c.f. bract, bracteole.

infraspecific: of lower taxonomic rank than species.

infra-stylar extra-gynoecial compitum/pollen tube growth: in a more or less apocarpous gynoecium, where mucilage outside the stigmas allows pollen grains landing on the mucilage to fertilise ovules in any of the carpels, see also supra-stylar extra-gynoecial compitum/pollen tube growth, in the strict sense applied to a cup at the apex of the gynoecium, see hyperstigma, c.f. intragynoecial compitum, , transmission tissue.

infratectum: of a pollen grain, that part of the ectexine between the foot layer and tectum, see alveolate, columellate and granulate, c.f. also supractectal structures/sculpture elements.

infructescence: that part of the stem axial system that bears fruits, the grouping or arrangement in which fruits are borne on a plant, c.f. inflorescence, see axillary, cauliflorous, ramiflorous, supra-axillary, terminal (general position).

infundibular: e.g. of a polysymmetric corolla, gradually widening from the base to the more or less spreading lobes, generally resembling a funnel, c.f. campanulate, rotate, salverform, tubular, urceolate. (funnel-shaped in the image).

ingroup: the clade of immediate interest, c.f. outgroup, sister group.

initial: see cambial initials.

initial zone: a part of the shoot apical meristem consisting of slowly-dividing stem cells surrounded by the morphogenetic zone; the initial zone can be divided (different patterns of gene expression) into a centrally-located organizing centre that produces and maintains the stem cells at the summit of the meristem (see Friedman et al. 2004).

inner bark: a non-technical term for the inner part of the bark, specifically the secondary tissues of the phloem, c.f. outer bark.

innovation: in plants with intermittent growth, the stem and associated leaves produced during each period of growth.

inolizidine alkaloid: a polyhydroxy alkaloid.

inquiline: animal that lives commensally in the dwelling place of another animal.

insectivorous: catching and feeding on insects.

inserted: attached to, arising from.

intectate: a pollen grain lacking a tectum, but with sculpturing.

integument: in general, a covering; specifically one of the layers of tissue that usually cover the ovule, enveloping the nucellus and forming the micropyle where it meets at the apex of the ovule, see endothelium, c.f. also antiraphe, chalaza, funicle, embryo sac, raphe.

integumentary tapetum = endothelium.

inter- (prefix): between.

intercalary: between two points, thus intercalary growth, extension or growth from an intercalary meristem, i.e. neither from the apex nor the base of the internode, intercalary inflorescence, an inflorescence that either arises in an internodal position, or one that was originally terminal but ceases to be so when vegetative growth subsequently resumes from the stem apex; c.f. axillary, leaf-opposed, supra-axillary.

intercalary meristem: an actively-growing region of primary tissue somewhat removed from the apical meristem and occurring between regions of more or less differentiated tissues, e.g. at the base of a monocot leaf, in some internodal regions, etc.

interfascicular cambium: a lateral meristem developing from tissues in the region between the vascular bundles, and, with the fascicular cambium, making up the vascular cambium.

interfascicular region: tissues in the region between the vascular bundles.

intermediary cell: in minor vein phloem, a type of companion cell that abuts the bundle sheath in which the walls have numerous branched plasmodesmata, the branches being narrower and more numerous in the walls on the intermediary cell side than on the the bundle sheath cell side, c.f. transfer cell.

intermediate meristem: of a root apical meristem in which cell files giving rise to different tissues trace to the initials at the apex, but the initials are not clonally distinct, c.f. closed meristem, open meristem.

intermediate: of the stem vascular system, in which the sympodia are partly discrete and separate from the others, and partly connected by fusions of vascular bundles, c.f. closed, open.

internal phloem: primary phloem that is found adaxially or internally to the xylem in the stem, in the leaf manifest as a bicollateral vascular bundle, c.f. included phloem, successive cambia, c.f. also amphicribral, amphivasal, collateral.

internode: the portion of a stem between the level of insertion of two successive leaves, leaf pairs or leaf whorls, or branches of an inflorescence, i.e. between two nodes.

interpetiolar: e.g. of stipules, between the petioles of two opposite leaves, c.f. intrapetiolar, sheathing.

interrupted: e.g. of an inflorescence, having the flowers unevenly distributed along the axis, with conspicuous gaps.

interxylary cambia: of secondary thickening where vascular cambium is initiated in axial parenchyma of xylem tissue and cutting off both xylem and phloem, etc., as per normal, the polarity of the system being local, not stem-wide, c.f. successive cambia.

interxylary phloem: in secondary vascular tissue, phloem islands surrounded by xylem in a stem or root with a single vascular cambium, c.f. internal phloem, successive cambia, c.f. also amphicribral, amphivasal, bicollateral, collateral.

intine (both Erdtman and Faegri and Iverson): the innermost of the major layers of the pollen grain wall, underlies the exine and borders the cytoplasm, not resistant to acetolysis resistant and therefore absent in conventionally prepared palynological material, development under control of the developing spore, i.e. gametophyte, see also oncus and Zwischenkörper, c.f. ectexine and endexine.

intra- (prefix): borne immediately adaxially or admedially to the structure that this prefix qualifies, e.g. intrastaminal nectaries, nectaries borne on the receptacle between the staminal whorl and the ovary; more loosely, intra- = within.

intragynoecial compitum = compitum (but this is a loose equivalence), c.f. extragynoecial compitum.

intramarginal vein: a continuous more or less looping vein that runs admedially to/inside the leaf blade margin and which joins the secondary veins, a composite vein usually formed by linking parts of secondary veins, as in brochidodromous venation, c.f. fimbrial vein.

intrapetiolar: e.g. of stipules, between a petiole and the stem on which they are borne, c.f. interpetiolar, sheathing.

intravaginal: in monocots, of a shoot, arising from an axillary bud that remains inside the sheath of the subtending leaf, as in bunch/tussock grasses, c.f. extravaginal.

intravaginal squamule = colleter.

intraxylary phloem, a confusing term, = included phloem or internal phloem.

introduced: c.f. adventive, native.

intron: part of a gene sequence that is transcribed but not translated, being spliced out before this, c.f. exon.

introrse: of anthers, dehiscing adaxially towards the centre of the flower, c.f. extrorse, latrorse.

intrusive: pushing into something, e.g. of placentae protruding into the ovary loculus, of endosperm haustoria, pushing into or between cells, or of cell growth, where a cell pushes between neighboring cells that separate along the middle lamella.

intrusive-parietal: of the placentation or arrangement of the ovules in an ovary of a syncarpous gynoecium (inapplicable if the gynoecium is pseudomonomerous), in which the placentae protrude from the margin more or less deeply into the ovary loculus, c.f. apical, axile, basal, free-central, laminar, marginal, parietal.

intussusception: in cell wall formation, growth by addition of new wall material within previously formed wall, c.f. apposition.

inulin: a fructan that acts as a storage polysaccharide, yields fructose on hydrolysis, c.f. callose, cellulose, hemicellulose, inulin, pectin, starch.

Inulin, (C6 H10 O5)n.

invasive: an intermediate tapetal "type", where the cell walls degenerate but the protoplasts do not fuse, individual protoplasts intruding into the loculus (e.g. Verstraete et al. 2014), c.f. amoeboid and glandular.

inversostyly: flowers of a species having different style and stamen arrangements, the lengths not varying and the flowers of any one plant being identical, c.f. heterostyly.

involucel: a group of "bracts" surrounding a secondary inflorescence such as the base of an umbellule, or of "bracteoles" surrounding an individual flower, as in Dipsacaceae, although the morphological interpretation of these structures may be a matter of dispute.

involucre: a group of inflorescence bracts surrounding an inflorescence.

involute: of leaf vernation, where the margins of the lamina are independently rolled towards the adaxial surface, i.e. to the centre/midrib, c.f. circinate, conduplicate, conduplicate-flat, conduplicate-involute, conduplicate-plicate, curved, flat, plicate, revolute, supervolute, supervolute-curved, supervolute-involute.

iridoids: subclass of terpenoids, monoterpenoids with lactone substitutions (the right half of the diagram below), usually in glycosidic form, in nearly all deoxyloganic acid or epi-deoxyloganic acid is an intermediary, see route I iridoids (including secoiridoids) and route II iridoids (including carboxylated and decarboxylated iridoids).

Iridoid base.

iridoplast: a modified plastid in which thylakoids are stacked in threes, adjacent stacks overlapping slightly, the stacks extending across the plastid, c.f. bizonoplast, chloroplast, chromoplast, leucoplast, sieve tube plastid.

irregular (of floral symmetry) = asymmetric, sometimes also used for monosymmetric flowers.

iso- (prefix): equal in number of parts or appearance, in chemical names, refers to an isomer.

isobifacial: of flattened structures, especially leaves, having both surfaces structurally similar, c.f. bifacial, dorsiventral, unifacial.

isobilateral: of symmetry, = disymmetric.

isoetid: refers to small, often submerged plants with their leaves in a rosette and with their roots representing a large portion of their biomass (e.g. see Raven et al. 1988).

isoflavans: isomeric form of flavones with the most reduced structure of any isoflavonoids that lack hydroxy or ketone groups, i.e. there are no oxygens in the structure; they are common as phytoalexins in Fabaceae.

Isoflavan, C19 H22 O5.

isoflavones: class of flavonoids in which the B ring of flavones is attached to the 3-position (instead of the 2-position), absorbing light in the ultraviolet region and a component of "bee violet".

Base structure, C15 H10 O2.	Luteone, C20 H18 O6.
Wighteone, C20 H18 O5.

isoflavonoids: class of flavonoids in which the B ring of flavones is attached to the 3-position (instead of the 2-position) and that lack the 3-hydroxy group of flavonols.

isokestose: oligosaccharides, inulin trisaccharide, the building block of inulin-type fructans; c.f. kestose.

1-kestose, C18 H32 O16.

isomerous: with an equal number of parts in each whorl of the flower, except perhaps the gynoecial whorl, c.f. anisomerous.

isopentenyl pyrophosphate: the building unit of terpenes.

Isopentenyl pyrophosphate, C5 H12 O7 P2.

isoprene: a volatile unsaturated branched chain five-carbon hydrocarbon that is the basic unit of terpenes, synthesised via the mevalonic acid pathway, forming complex polyisoprenes.

Isoprene, C5 H8.

isoquinoline alkaloids: type of true alkaloid, formed from a precursor of 3,4-dihydroxytyramine (dopamine) linked to an aldehyde or ketone.

Isoquinoline nucleus.	Berberine, C20 H18 N O4.
Hydrastine, C21 H21 N O6.	Papaverine, C20 H21 N O4.

isothiocyanates: esters of isothiocyanic acid, R—N=C=S, a.k.a. mustard oils, with a pungent smell and a sharp taste, derived from glucosinolates undergoing an enzymatic reaction (via the enzyme myrosinase) when plant tissue is crushed, c.f. nitriles.

isovitexin: a glycoflavone.

iteroparous: of reproduction, when there are repeated annual/seasonal bouts of flowering, c.f. plietesial, semelparous, c.f. more from the point of view of meristem persistence hapaxanthic, monocarpic, pleonanthic, and of plant duration, annual, biennial, ephemeral, perennial.

J

jaculator: a hardened and hook-like funicle that is conspicuous in the seeds of many Acanthaceae, rare elsewhere.

jugate = paired.

justicin: a lignan.

juvenile: of leaves, those on a young plant that differ in form from those on an adult, sometimes also found on sucker or reiterating shoots, i.e. when the plant is heteroblastic, c.f. anisophyllous, heterophyllous.

K

kaempferol: a common flavonol with a single hydroxyl group attathed to the B ring; occurs as a copigment in flowers and fruits, c.f. myricetin and quercetin.

Kaempferol, C15 H10 O6.

kairomone: a semiochemical that benefits an individual of a species that receives it, but harms the emitter, a member of a different species, c.f. hormone and pheromone.

karyotype: the gross morphology of the somatic chromosome set, described at metaphase of mitosis in terms of chromosome number and length, centromere position, etc., to karyotype = to carry out tests to determine the karyope of an indiidual, c.f. also cytotype and nucleotype.

keel: the relatively large paired abaxial petals (in a papilionoid flower), or a single petal (in some other plants) that together or singly are more or less concave and with an abaxial ridge, usually more or less enclosing the stamens, c.f. standard, wings; more generally keeled, of leaves, petals or bracts, = folded and ridged along the midrib.

Keimhof/Keimhöfe, = oncus/onci.

kernel: a vague term, not recommended (it can mean endosperm, embryo, etc.).

kettle: the more or less swollen basal portion of the spathe of Araceae enclosing the part of the spadix with staminate and/or pistillate flowers.

key: series of contrasting choices by which an unknown plant may be identified by the process of elimination, see multiple access, polyclave.

key innovation: an apomorphy that facilitates subsequent radiation/diversification/success of the clade it characterises, see also autapomorphic, synapomorphic.

kestose: a frutosyl sucrose oligosaccharide, may serve as intermediates in the biosynthesis of fructans, c.f. isokestose.

Kestose, C18 H32 O16.

kleptomy[i]ophilous: of entomophilous flowers pollinated by kleptoparasitic flies, i.e. food thieves that feed on the prey of other predators, c.f. cantharophilous, melittophilous , myophilous, psychophilous, phalaenophilous, sapromyophilous, sphigophilous.

Körper-Kappe: a term used in describing the structure of a young root, where the Körper is that part of the root distinguished by its inverted (with respect to a root apex growing downwards) T-shaped cell junctions - the Körper is above the apex - while in the surrounding Kappe the cell junctions are erect T-shaped - the Kappe is below the apex (it includes the root cap sensu stricto) and also to the sides of the apex.

Kranz: distinctive leaf anatomy of many C4 plants in which the regularly-spaced vascular bundles are surrounded by a sheath of large cells, themselves containing large chloroplasts, and then by radially-arranged mesophyll cells.

L

L- (prefix): laevo, handedness of isomers, all naturally-occurring amino acids are L-; see L-tryptophan, L-phenylalanine, etc.

labellum: any rather large and lip-like structure in a flower, usually in the abaxial or lower position, e.g. in Orchidaceae (a perianth member), Zingiberaceae and Costaceae (derived from petaloid staminodes).

labellum: in Orchidaceae, the distinctive median tepal of the inner whorl (see epichile, hypochile) - for other commonly-used terms specific to orchid flowers, see caudicula, column, hamulus, incumbent, labellum, rostellum, massulae, sectile, stipes, tegula, viscidium, also epichile, hypochile.

laciniate: slashed into narrow, pointed lobes.

lactones: cyclic compounds with a 5-6-membered ring in which the chain is closed by ester formation between a carboxyl and a hydroxyl group in the same molecule; see cardiac glycosides,

Parasorbic acid, C6 H8 O2.

lacuna: a gap or cavity, see nodal anatomy.

lagenostome: a pre-pollination pollen chamber formed at the apex of the megasporangium wall (nucellus) of some gymnosperms by cell degeneration in which pollen may collect, c.f. antiraphe, chalaza, epistase, female gametophyte, funicle, hypostase, integument (see also endothelium), megaspore, micropyle, pollen chamber, obturator, podium, ponticulus, postament, raphe.

lalongate: where the longest axis of an endoaperture of the compound aperture of a pollen grain is perpendicular to the longest axis of the ectoaperture, c.f. lolongate.

lamella: a thin, plate-like layer, see middle lamella.

lamina: the blade of a leaf, usually flattened, dorsiventral, and expanded, often with a midrib, note that whether the blade of a monocot leaf should be considered equivalent to the lamina s. str. of other angiosperm leaves is debatable, c.f. cross-zone, hyperphyll, hypophyll, leaf base, plate meristem, ligule, petiole, plate meristem, stipule, and Vorläuferspitze, see admedial, exmedial (positional terms); the lamina margin often with teeth, also biserrate, crenate, dentate, entire, serrate, sinuate, undulate, terms for describing the margin, also endoscopic and exoscopic, arrangement of vascular bundles in the periphery of a terete blade, and see also venation.

laminar: of the placentation or arrangement of the ovules in an ovary of a syncarpous gynoecium (inapplicable if the gynoecium is pseudomonomerous), the ovules not being localised on placentae but scattered along the septae, c.f. apical, axile, basal, free central, intrusive-parietal, marginal, parietal.

lateral: borne lateral to the axis of symmetry of the flower relative to the inflorescence axis, that is, lateral to the line joining the flower, the bract subtending it, the inflorescence axis on which it is borne, c.f. abaxial, adaxial, median.

lateral: of a style or stylulus that arises from the side of the gynoecium, c.f. gynobasic, terminal.

laterally compressed: of axillary structures, flattened laterally, so extended in the ad-/abaxially or median plane, c.f. laterally compressed, see also angustiseptate and latiseptate fruits.

lateral meristem: a meristem of stem or root arranged parallel with the sides of the organ in which they occur, see cork cambium, cuticular epithelium, master cambium, polyderm, vascular cambium, c.f. apical meristem.

laterocylic: of paracytic stomata where the subsidiary cells are parallel to the long axis of the stoma and completely surround the latter, c.f. brachyparacytic.

laterocytic: of stomata, with three or more distinct subsidiary cells partially (not at the apex or base) surrounding the guard cells, see actinocytic, allelocytic, anisocytic, anomocytic, cyclocytic, diacytic, helicocytic, paracytic, staurocytic, stephanocytic, tetracytic.

late wood: wood, strictly speaking xylem, produced later in the growing season, often darker in colour and with narrower xylem elements, c.f. early wood.

latex: a viscous fluid exuded from the cut surfaces of the leaves and stems, in the strict sense referring to polymers made up of isoprene units in the cis- configuration (gutta has those same units in the trans configuration), borne in laticifers, c.f. gums, mucilages, oils, resins, waxes - but latex is frequently used to refer to exudate of any type.

laticifers: a system of long multinucleate tubes in which latex is found, see articulated and non-articulated laticifers.

laticiferous cell = non-articulated laticifer.

laticiferous vessel = articulated laticifer.

latiseptate: of a fruit that is flattened in a direction parallel to the septum, which thus traverses the broad axis of the ovary, c.f. angustiseptate.

latrorse: turned sideways, i.e. neither towards or away from axis; of anthers, opening laterally towards adjacent anthers, c.f. extrorse, introrse.

lauric acid: a saturated fatty acid.

leaf: commonly thought of as one of the three basic parts of the seed plant body along with the root and stem, a structure usually of determinate growth, without secondary thickening, and of superficial origin, often dorsi-ventrally flattened and photosynthetic in part, and in the axil of which there is usually a bud or buds, approximately = phyllome, c.f. caulome, see anaphoric and cataphoric (rotation in bud), compound, scale, simple (major kinds of leaves), ascidiate, phyllichnia, tendril (particular variants of leaves), megaphyll, microphyll (leaf types based on presumed origin), also hyperphyll, hypophyll, lamina, leaf base, ligule, petiole, stipule, and Vorläuferspitze (parts of angiosperm leaves), frond, stipe (parts of fern leaves), also bifacial, dorsiventral, isobifacial, unifacial (leaf faces), also alternate, bijugate, decussate, distichous, geminate, opposite, pseudoverticillate, spiral, spiromonistichous, tristichous, whorled (arrangement), also sporophyll, tropophyll (bearing sporangia or not); see also leaf teeth, venation and vernation.

leaf base: the bottom part of a leaf, c.f. cross-zone, hyperphyll, hypophyll, lamina, ligule, petiole, stipule, and Vorläuferspitze; Kaplan (1997, 1: chap. 9) considers the leaf base to be an integral part of the stem/internodal region.

leaf gap: in nodal anatomy, a parenchymatous interruption in the central vascular cylinder that occurs as a vascular bundle, a leaf leaf trace, departs, see also reparatory strand, c.f. perforation.

leaflet: the ultimate unit of a compound leaf, see petiolule, stipel, also tendril.

leaf-opposed: of an inflorescence or bud, arising from the stem opposite the point of insertion of a leaf, c.f. axillary, intercalary, ramiflorous, supra-axillary, terminal.

leaf trace: in nodal anatomy, a vascular bundle that diverges from an axial bundle or another leaf trace and that supplies a leaf, c.f. leaf gap, see also reparatory strand.

lectins: a group of hemagglutinating proteins (hemagglutinins) found primarily in plant seeds, which bind specifically to the branching sugar molecules of glycoproteins and glycolipids on the surface of cells.

left-contorted: a variant of contorted aestivation - viewed from the inside/adaxial side of e.g. the corolla, so each lobe/member having one edge overlapping the adjacent segment, the left margin of the petal occupies the inner position, the right the outer, c.f. right-contorted.

legume: the fruit of some Fabaceae, formed from one carpel and dehiscent along one or both sides, explosively so or not, sometimes also used for other fruits in the family whether dehiscent or indehiscent, winged or not, splitting transversely or not - hence a term of little use; also a crop species in the family Fabaceae.

lemma: part of a grass floret, the lower of two bracts enclosing a flower (the other is the palea), perhaps a bract s. str., see also glume (of a spikelet), lodicule.

lenticel: a loosely-packed mass of often more or less rounded cork cells occurring especially in the young stem, bark or even leaf of a plant, visible on the surface as a raised, often powdery-appearing spot, through which gaseous exchange occurs, c.f. pneumathode (on a root).

lenticular: shaped like a biconvex lens.

lepidote: of indumentum, made up of scales, c.f. arachnoid, arbuscular, canescent, hirsute, hispid, puberulous, pubescent, sericeous, stellate, strigose, tomentose, villous, see also glabrescent and glabrate, which refer to stages in the loss of these hairs.

lepto- (prefix): slender.

leptocaul: of trees, with more or less slender trunk and branches, c.f. pachycaul, see habit.

leptocentric: type of vascular bundle, = amphivasal.

leptom(e): the sieve elements and associated parenchymatic cells of phloem tissue, c.f. hadrom(e), stereom(e).

leptmorph: of bamboos, where the rhizome is monopodial, elongated, and more slender than the culms, c.f. pachymorph.

leptophyll: in ecology, the blade of a leaf or leaflet <25 mm² in surface area, c.f. macrophyll, megaphyll, mesophyll, microphyll, nanophyll, notophyll.

leptosporangium: esp. used in ferns, a sporangium that develops from a single superficial cell, the wall of the sporangium being a single cell layer thick, c.f. eusporangium.

leucoanthocyanins = proanthocyanidins.

leucodelphinidin: a proanthocyanidin.

leucoplast: a colorless plastid, c.f. amyloplast, elaioplast, proteinoplast.

liane: of habit, a climbing or twining plant, usually applied to woody climbers, c.f. acaulescent, arborescent, dendroid, frutescent, fruticose, herb, rheophyte, suffrutescent, schopfbaum, shrub, subshrub, tree, vine, see also life forms.

libriform fibre: a fiber, the longest cell in the xylem, that has more or less simple pits, c.f. fiber tracheid, tracheid, the three making a continuum of forms.

life forms: a classification of the growth forms of plants based on the position of the resting buds and the duration of the life of the shoot, in part see chamaephyte, cryptophyte (geophyte, helophyte, hydrophyte), hemicryptophyte, phanerophyte, therophyte, see also habit.

light line (of a seed coat) = linea lucida.

lignan: colorless, crystalline, solid, dimeric compounds derived from precursors related to those involved in the formation of lignin, i.e. the union of two units of phenylpropane, cinnamic acid, or their derivatives, through their aliphatic side-chains, they occur in chiral forms (as opposed to lignins), c.f. neolignans.

Lignan base.	Sesamin, C20 H18 O6.
Justicidin, A C22 H18 O7.

lignin: a class of polymers formed from mostly C6-C3 monomeric units, cinnamic acid, coumarins, that yield three main kinds of lignin building blocks, hence G, H and S units/lignin, and occuring in all plants; lignification, the deposition of lignin e.g. in secondary cell walls, see lignan, neolignans, c.f. cellulose, hemicellulose.

lignotuber: a woody swelling at the base of the shoot system below or just above the ground, containing adventitious buds from which new shoots develop if the top of the plant is cut off or burnt, common in many fire-tolerant shrubs (= geoxyles), c.f. bulb, bulbil, caudex, corm, culm, dropper, pseudobulb, rhizome, runner, stolon, tendril, tuber, turion.

ligule: a membranous or hairy appendage on the adaxial surface, e.g. of a leaf at the junction between sheath and blade, especially in Poaceae - c.f. cross-zone, hyperphyll, hypophyll, lamina, leaf base, petiole, stipule, and Vorläuferspitze, or a similar structure at the junction of two parts of a petal, e.g. claw and limb (see also corona); also, an adaxial appendage near the leaf base in some monocots and in Selaginellaceae, etc.; adj. ligulate.

ligule: the strap-shaped corolla limb in ray flowers of Asteraceae, adj. ligulate.

limb: the upper, free, spreading portion of a corolla or perianth that is connate at the base; the expanded portion of a sepal or petal above the claw. (not labelled in image).

limonoids: type of triterpenoid (tetranortripterpenes), bitter compounds, pentacyclic, with a furan ring attached as a side chain.

Dysoxylin, C28 H32 O9.

Limonin, C26 H30 O8.

linea fissura: an inconspicuous line on the surface of the seed coat marking a weakness in the testa, the whole making the pleurogram, as in Fabaceae-Mimosoideae, c.f. hilum, micropyle, pleurogram; the linea lucida is an unrelated structure.

lineage: strictly speaking, an ancestral-descendent series of individuals, but often used interchangeably with clade, in which case the latter is preferable.

linea lucida: of the testa (or could be tegmen), a bright line seen under the microscope running periclinally through heavily thickened palisade cells (see the Malpighian layer) and separating more or less thickened parts of the cells which as a result may seem to be a double layer of cells; the linea fissura is an unrelated structure.

linear: very narrow in relation to the length, and with the sides parallel.

linear coumarin: furanocoumarins in which the furan ring is in line with the benz-2-pyrone nucleus, as in psoralen, often phototoxic, c.f. angular coumarins.

Furanocoumarin base.

Psoralen, C11 H6 O3.

linguiform, lingulate: tongue-shaped.

lipid: a class of small moleculaes that are hydrophobic or both hydrophobic and hydrophilic and that includes fats, waxes, mono[etc.]glycerides, phospholipids, etc..

lithocyst: enlarged epidermal cell, usually of a leaf, containing a cystolith.

lithophyte: a plant that grows on the surface of unweathered rock, c.f. amphibious, aquatic, epilithic, epiphyte, terrestrial.

lobed: of the apex of any laminar structure, e.g., petal, leaf blade, with two or more divisions that have rounded apices (some would say that these divisions have to be more than 25% the length of the structure), c.f. acute, attenuate, acumen, apiculum, arista, awn, cuneate, caudate, cuspidate, emarginate,mucronate, muticous, obtuse, retuse, rounded, truncate, c.f. also cordate, hastate, oblique, runcinate, sagittate (esp. of lamina base).

locellate: of anthers, when a single sporangium is divided by partitions of various morphologies, a condition for which polysporangiate, q.v., is sometimes used.

locule, loculus: an enclosed compartment within an organ, e.g. an ovary, an anther, pl. loculi, dim. locellus.

loculicidal: of the dehiscence of capsules, along lines down the centres of the outer walls of the loculi or between the placentae when the placentation is parietal, c.f. circumscissile, poricidal, septicidal, septifragal.

lodicule: in a grass floret, one of a pair (or three?) of tiny scales or flaps of tissue between the lemma and palea and the stamens, possibly representing reduced inner perianth members, see also glume (of a spikelet).

loganin: a routeI iridoid.

lolongate: where the longest axis of an endoaperture of the compound aperture of a pollen grain is parallel to the longest axis of the ectoaperture, c.f. lalongate.

lomentum: a schizocarp-type fruit formed from one or more carpels and having distinct transverse constrictions or lines where splitting occurs, breaking transversely into one-seeded segments when mature. c.f. craspedium.

long branch attraction: in molecular evolution, where extensive change in two branches leads to similarities/apparent homologies in the two occuring by chance, hence the long branches end up as sister taxa, see heterotachy.

long-day: of a photoperiodic response, where long periods of light alternating with short periods of dark are neeeded for flowering to occur (more accurately, no long uninterrupted period of dark), c.f. short-day.

long shoot: a shoot in which all or most of the internodes elongate, c.f. short shoot; the comparison is often made between axillary shoots.

lophate: pollen in which the surface is honeycomb-like because of thickenings of the exine, c.f. baculate, echinate, fossulate, gemmate, foveolate, metareticulate, pilate (gemmate and retipilate are variants), psilate, reticulate, retipilate, rugulate, scabrate, striate, and verrucose.

lower: of parts of a flower in particular, generally can be replaced by abaxial, c.f. upper.

lupinine: a quinolizidine alkaloid.

lupin-type nodule: a type of nodule caused by nitrogen-fixing bacteria in Fabaceae, perhaps indeterminate, with a broad subcortical meristem, and forming a more or less ruff-like structure with a broad attachment to the root, c.f. aeschynomenoid, caesalpinioid, crotalarioid, and desmodioid.

lumen: (pl. lumina), an element of pollen surface ornamentation, a space enclosed the muri.

luteolin: hydroxylated flavone derivative, common in leaves and flowers.

luteone: an isoflavone.

lycophyll = microphyll.

lycopsid photosynthetic pathway = LPP.

lysigenous: of cavities in plants, formed by the dissolution of cells, c.f. expansigenous, rhexigenous, schizogenous.

M

M_A: dry leaf mass per unit area, the inverse of SLA.

macro- (prefix): large, often used as an alternate for mega.

macrophyll: in ecology, the blade of a leaf or leaflet 18225-164025 mm² in surface area, roughly 18 x 10 cm to somewhat more than 60 x 25 cm, c.f. leptophyll, megaphyll, mesophyll, microphyll, nanophyll, notophyll.

macropodial, macropodous: of an embryo lacking well developed cotyledons and in which the reserves are stored in a massive hypocotyl.

macrosclereid: a sclereid cell ca 2-4 times longer than broad, lacking processes, c.f. astrosclereid, filiform sclereid, brachysclereid, osteosclereid, trichosclereid.

macrospore = megaspore.

macrozamin: cycad toxin with primoverose.

Macrozamin, C13 H24 N2 O11.

maesaquinone: a benzoquinone.

magnolioid root: a stout (0.5 mm across or more) lateral root with no or very few and short and stout root hairs, c.f. fibrous root, hair root, nodule, tap root, and tuberous root.

male, e.g. of a flower that has functional staminate parts alone, = staminate.

male gametophyte: a plant body or cell lineage formed by vegetative growth of the microspore, see generative cell, sperm, vegetative cell, also binucleate and trinucleate pollen grains, c.f. femalegametophyte.

malic acid: a carboxylic acid with the formula HOOC-CH₂-CHOH-COOH, c.f. citric acid.

Malpighian layer: a palisade layer of the seed, esp. of the exotesta but of various origins, that has much thickened walls, see linea lucida.

malpighiaceous hair: a unicellular, T-shaped hair with a short stalk and often looking ± narrowly fusiform from above, = unicellular T-shaped hair, see also dolabriform, c.f. colleter, collar rhizoid, dendritic, root hair, stellate.

malvoid: a leaf tooth in which the medial vein forms a non-glandular persistent apex, lateral veins are not involved, c.f. begonioid, chloranthoid, cucurbitoid, cunonioid, dillenioid, monimioid, platanoid, rosoid, salicoid, spinose, theoid, urticoid, violoid.

mammillate: having small, nipple-shaped projections.

mangiferin, mangostin: two xanthones.

mannans: a cell wall storage polysaccharide in which mannose is the main sugar, forming a matrix that lacks cellulose and pectins in the same proportions as in the primary cell wall, divided into pure mannans, galactomannans and glucomannans, c.f. galactans and xyloglucans.

mannitol: a hexitol or polyol (sugar alcohol) formed e.g. by reduction of mannose, occurs in gum exudates, c.f. arabitol, dulcitol, glycerol, sorbitol (isomer of mannitol), and xylitol.

Mannitol, C6 H14 O6.

mannose: a hexose sugar, c.f. fructose, glucose.

manoxylic: of xylem produced by vascular cambium, esp. of gymnosperms, containing abundant parenchyma and few tracheids, c.f. pycnoxylic.

many: of floral parts, a large and often indefinite number, usually 15 or more.

marcescent: withering, but not falling off, c.f. accrescent, caducuous, deciduous, deliquescent, fugacious, persistent.

marginal: occurring at or very close to the margin, a kind of placentation usually used when carpels are separate, c.f. apical, axile, basal, free central, intrusive-parietal, laminar, parietal.

marginal [or lateral] blastozone: a more or less interrupted strip-like portion along the margins of the primordial leaf blade that retains the potential for organogenetic activity, primary differentiation occuring and causing lobing or the development of leaflets, c.f. meristem.

margo: the peripheral part of the membrane in a bordered pit in gymnosperms, etc., consisting of rather sparse cellulose microfibrils of the primary wall, c.f. bars of Sanio, torus.

massulae: in Orchidaceae in particular, a group of pollen tetrads of irregular number and so size, but less than the contents of an entire theca, derived from a single archesporial cell, and making up a sectile pollinium - for other commonly-used terms more or less specific to orchid flowers, see caudicula, column, hamulus, hard pollinia, incumbent, labellum, pollinaria,pollinia, rostellum, soft pollinia, stipes, tegula, viscidium, also epichile, hypochile; also in general palynology, c.f. monad, polyad, tetrad.

mast: originally used for the fallen fruits of European Fagaceae, now extended to e.g. Dipterocarpaceae, as in good or poor mast years, years with much or little fruiting; masting.

master cambium: a lateral meristem producing successive cambia and conjunctive tissue internally, c.f. cork cambium, cuticular epithelium, polyderm, vascular cambium.

matrotrophic: sometimes used of the embryo of embryophytes, dependent on the gametophyte for its nutrition, lit. "mother-eating" or "mother-food".

maytansinoid: ansamycin antiobiotics with a partly unsaturated 19-membered ring made up of 18 carbons and one nitrogen.

median: the plane through an axis and the axis from which it originates, e.g. in a flower, the axis of symmetry of the flower relative to the inflorescence axis, that is, on the plane joining the flower, the bract subtending it, the inflorescence axis on which it is borne, c.f. abaxial, adaxial, lateral.

medulla = pith.

medullary bundle: a vascular bundle traversing the pith, c.f. cortical bundle.

medullary ray = interfascicular region.

medullated: with pith, used e.g. when talking about stelar morphology.

megagametophyte = female gametophyte.

megaphyll: lit. "a large leaf", a leaf of any size whose vascular supply leaves one or more gaps as it departs from the stem vascular tissue, in origin it may represent a planated branch system, the leaf itself generally has complexly-branched vascular bundles - not easy to define, and perhaps a term of doubtful utility, c.f. microphyll, see also enation.

megaphyll: in ecology, the blade of a leaf or leaflet >164025 mm² in surface area, somewhat more than 60 x 25 cm, c.f. leptophyll, macrophyll, mesophyll, microphyll, nanophyll, notophyll.

megasporangium: a sporangium producing megaspores, = nucellus + megaspore(s) in seed plants, c.f. microsporangium.

megaspore: one of the two kinds of spores produced after meiosis in a heterosporous plant, and on germination giving rise individually, or rarely with other megaspores in some flowering plants, to the female gametophyte or embryo sac, c.f. microspore - n.b. a megaspore is not always larger than a microspore, and a (perhaps unecessary) size-neutral equivalent is gynospore.

megasporocyte: a sporocyte or meiocyte giving rise by a meiotic division to one or sometimes more megaspores, c.f. microsporocyte.

megasporophyll: a structure (perhaps a specialised leaf) upon which or in the axil of which one or more megasporangia are borne, in flowering plants, a carpel, c.f. microsporophyll.

megatherm: an organism that requires warm conditions for growth and development, c.f. microtherm.

meiocyte: a sporogenous cell that by meiosis gives rise to spores, see megasporocyte, microsporocyte.

meiosis: the two-stage division of a diploid nucleus during which gene recombination occurs and the number of chromosomes is halved, occurring once in every life cycle, sporic meiosis occurs in land plants immediately prior to the production of haploid spores during the alternation of generations (haploid and diploid generations alternating), gametic meiosis occurs in animals and some "algae" and leads directly to the production of haploid gametes (individuals are diploid), while zygotic meiosis occurs in some other viridiplantae and occurs immediately after the formation of the diploid zygote (individuals are haploid), c.f. mitosis.

meiospore: a spore produced by meiosis, as in land plants, see megasporocyte, microspore.

melanin: complex and resistant polymers formed from phenolic and indole monomers found in the walls of some ectomycorrhizal fungi ((and) in dark septate hyphae?) (Soudzilovskaia et al. 2015).

mellitophily: a variant of entomophilous pollination in which the flowers are pollinated by bees, see also bee purple (colour), buzz pollination (kind of pollination), and monolectic, oligolectic and polylectic (behaviour of pollinator), c.f. cantharophilous, kleptomyophilous , melittophilous, myophilous, phalaenophilous, psychophilous, sapromyophilous, sphingophilous.

meranthium: of a flower that consists of two or more functionally independent units from the pollinator's points of view, as in Iris, the other extreme from pseudanthium.

mericarp: one segment of a fruit of a schizocarp that has dehisced at maturity into units (often derived from the individual carpels) consisting of pericarp plus seed(s), c.f. nutlet.

meristele: "we would like to seee the term eliminated from textbooks and from discussions of stelar morphology" (Beck et al. 1982), very often = vascular bundle.

meristem: a region of a plant in which undifferentiated cells actively divide, the result being new cells that ultimately differentiate, i.e. the cells have a capacity for morphogenesis and growth, see apical and lateral meristems, c.f. marginal blastozone.

meristemoid: a dividing cell, or small group of dividing cells, surrounded by more or less differentiated and undividing cells, e.g. a stomatal meristemoid, a cell whose immediate derivatives produce the stomata (or sometimes also subsidiary cells) - basically, a rather vague term and with different usages.

merism (merousness, merosity): the numerical relationship between the parts of the different whorls of the flower, see anisomerous and isomerous.

-merous, -mery: the number of parts per whorl in a flower that characterises a particular species, generally the same for the two perianth whorls, often also for the whorl(s) of stamens, least often for the carpelline whorl, e.g., three-merous, five-merous flowers, see pentamerous, trimerous.

mesarch: of a procambial strand, esp. xylem, in which the first-differentiated elements are in the centre of the strand, c.f. endarch, exarch.

mescaline: a protoalkaloid.

mesifixed: attached by or at the middle, e.g. of anthers, see basifixed, embedded, versatile; of hairs, see dolabriform, malpighiaceous, T-shaped.

meso-: in palynology, the equatorial region of a zonoaperturate pollen grain delimited by lines connecting the apices of the apertures, c.f. apo-.

mesocarp: the fleshy middle portion of the wall or pericarp of a succulent fruit, c.f. endocarp, exocarp.

mesocotyl: the internode between the haustorium/scutellum and the coleoptile in a monocot embryo or seedling, in fact an epicotyl that is congenitally fused with the base of the coleoptile (Tillich 2007), c.f. hypocotyl, of a monocot seedling, see also coleorhiza, hyperphyll (apocole, phanomer), hypophyll (cotyledonary sheath, coleoptile), collar (epiblast, periblast), also, an internode developing between the unequal cotyledons in some Gesneriaceae-Cyrtandroideae and -Epithematoideae after germination (see de Vogel 1980).

mesogamy: fertilisation during which the pollen tube penetrates the ovule laterally by way of the integuments, c.f. chalazogamy, porogamy, pseudoporogamy.

mesogenous: of stomatal ontogeny in which the subsidiary cells are produced from the same cell lineage that gives rise to the guard cells, two mitoses generally being involved, the latter of which is asymmetric (see e.g. Rudall & Knowles 2013), c.f. mesoperigenous, perigenous.

mesoperigenous: of stomatal ontogeny in which at least one of the subsidiary cells is produced from the same cell lineage that gives rise to the guard cells, a combination of mesogenous, perigenous developmental pathways.

mesophyll: photosynthetic tissue in the leaf in particular, see palisade, spongy.

mesophyll: in ecology, the blade of a leaf or leaflet 4500[an elliptic leaf ca 5 in. or 12.7 cm. long]-18225 mm² in surface area, c.f. leptophyll, macrophyll, megaphyll, microphyll, nanophyll, notophyll.

mesophyll: also in ecology, it would make sense if there were a vegetational term mesophyll/mesophyllous, to contrast with sclerophyll/sclerophyllous, and 'mesophyll' is already twice spoken for, however, the term is indeed sometimes used for habitats with well-watered, humid conditions, maybe with climbers and epiphytes, not too hot, the trees with mesophyllous leaves (see above), although it is also used more generally (as by Capitani et al. 2009) to describe the leaves of plants like maize and poplar (e.g. Populus nigra) which have relatively little sclerenchymatous/lignified tissue, as compared with the more sclerophyllous leaves of oak (e.g. Quercus ilex), c.f. also xeromorph and xerophyte.

mesophyte/mesophytic: of plants/vegetation, characteristic of moist habitats and with soft, fairly large leaves predominating, c.f. mesophyte, sclerophyll, xeromorph, and xerophyte.

mesopodium: an internode that separates the prophylls, c.f. epipodium, hypopodium.

mesopolyploid: a polyploidy event that took place fairly recently, up to ca 20 m.y.a., c.f. palaeopolyploid, see also allopolyploid, aneuploid, agmatoploid, autopolyploid, diploid, demiduplication, dysploid, endopolyploidy, haploid, polyploid, symploid.

mesotesta/mesotesta: cells in the seed coat that are derived from the cells between the outer and inner epidermides of the outer and inner integuments (respectively) of the ovule; note that the apparently comparable covering of seeds that have developed from ovules with a single integument (as in asterids, for example) is also referred to as a testa, although what that integument "is" morphologically is a separate issue..., c.f. exotesta/exotegmen and endotesta/endotegmen.

mesotonic: a branching pattern in which the middle buds of a season's growth/innovation grow out most strongly, c.f. acrotonic, basitonic.

mestome sheath: the inner and endodermal layer of cells - the walls being thick and with suberized lamellae - of a two-layered bundle sheath surrounding a vascular bundle, c.f. parenchyma sheath, starch sheath.

metacentric: a chromosome in which the centromere is at or near the middle, the spindle fibers attaching there during nuclear division, c.f. acrocentric, holocentric, and telocentric.

metareticulate: a term used to describe the surface of a pollen grain, particularly a pantoporate grain, a network-like pattern consisting of raised reticulum made up of mesocolpium in between which are the depressed pores, c.f. baculate, echinate, fossulate, gemmate, foveolate, lophate, pilate (gemmate and retipilate are variants), psilate, reticulate, rugulate, scabrate, striate, verrucose.

metatopy/metatopia: movement/displacement of buds/organs from their normal axillary position by differential growth, see concaulescent, horizontal metatopy/concaulescence, recaulescent, also epicaulescent, c.f. ectopic.

metaxylem: later-formed primary xylem differentiating from the procambium, the tracheary elements having more or less continuously thickened walls with pits, c.f. protoxylem.

metaxyphyll: a more or less scale-like bract not subtending a flower and borne immediately below the terminal flower and above the lateral flowers of a botryoid inflorescence (see Wu et al. 2007 and references); if this is the correct definition, it seems like a term that can be done without...

methylazoxymethanol: toxic aglycone of cycasin and macrozamin.

Methylazoxymethanol, C2 H6 N2 O2.

methylflavones: derivatives of chalcones.

Methylflavone, C16 H12 O3.

methyl glucosinolates: a class of aliphatic, straight chain glucosinolates, see also sinapine.

Methyl glucosinolate, C8 H15 N O9 S2.

Glucocapparin, C8 H15 N O9 S2.

mevalonic acid: a carboxylic acid precursor of sterols, terpenes and other isoprenoids.

Mevalonic acid, C6 H12 O4.

microgametophyte = male gametophyte.

microphyll: lit. "a small leaf", a leaf not necessarily very small (they can be up to 1 m long) in which the vascular trace supplying it does not interrupt the central vascular cylinder when it departs, i.e. there are no leaf gaps, the leaf itself generally has a single, unbranched vascular bundle, evolutionarily perhaps representing an enation, but overall perhaps a rather fuzzy concept, c.f. megaphyll.

microphyll: in ecology, the blade of a leaf or leaflet 225-2025 mm² in surface area, e.g. an elliptic blade ca 3 in. or 7.6 cm. long, c.f. leptophyll, macrophyll, megaphyll, mesophyll, nanophyll, notophyll.

micropyle: a small canal through the integument(s) at the apex of an ovule, either amphistomal, bistomal, endostomal, exostomal, naked, or zigzag, c.f. antiraphe, chalaza, funicle, embryo sac, integument, nucellus, obturator, podium, ponticulus, postament, raphe (the other parts of the ovule), and persisting as a pore on the seed coat, c.f. funicle, linea fissura.

microsporangium: sporangium producing microspores, usually many in number, in the life cycle of a heterosporous plant, c.f. megasporangium, see theca (arrangement of microsporangia), see also endothecium, exothecium, placentoid, tapetum (all tissues).

microspore: one of the two kinds of spores produced after meiosis in an heterosporous plant and on germination giving rise to the male gametophyte, in angiosperms, the pollen grain, see prepollen, true pollen, c.f. megaspore - n.b. a microspore is not always smaller than a megaspore, and a (perhaps unecessary) size-neutral equivalent is androspore.

microsporocyte: a sporocyte or meiocyte giving rise by a meiotic division to (usually) four microspores, c.f. megasporocyte, see callose ring.

microspore mother cell = microsporocyte.

microsporogenesis: the sequence of meiotic divisions that produces microspores, see simultaneous, successive.

microsporophyll: a structure on which one or more microsporangia are borne, in flowering plants, the stamen, c.f. megasporophyll.

microtherm: an organism that requires cool conditions for growth and development, c.f. megatherm.

middle lamella: the central layer of the wall between two adjacent cells, largely made up of pectinaceous substances, see primary wall, secondary wall.

midrib: the central, and usually the most prominent, vein of a lamina or any leaf-like organ, c.f. costa.

miltanthaline: a benzylisoquinoline alkaloid.

mitochondrion: a cell organelle surrounded by two double membranes that originated by endosymbiosis and now is involved in respiration, containing circular DNAs, part of the plant genome.

mitosis: the normal division of a nucleus, whether haploid or diploid, during which chromosomes are replicated, c.f. meiosis.

mixomerous: a gynoecium where the carpels have more or less lost their individuality, c.f. monomerous, pseudomonomerous

mixotroph: an organism that uses both its own photosynthetic activities and external organic matter as its sources of carbon and/or non-carbon elements, the external source including both fungal associates, prey in carnivorous plants, and uptake of soluble organic matter (Selosse et al. 2017c)), c.f. autotroph, biotroph, hemiparasite, heterotroph, hyperparasite, myco-heterotroph, parasite, saprobe/saprophyte/saprotroph

module: of growth, according to Hallé et al. (1978: p. 189) "shoot unit with determinate growth, either by apical abortion or conversion of the apex into an inflorescence", see sympodial unit; but module is best used in a more general sense, i.e., modular, of any structure that is made up of a number of largely similar units.

monad: especially of pollen, when each grain, one of the ultimate products of meiosis, is separate, c.f. massula, pollinia, polyad, tetrad.

monadelphous: of stamens, united by their filaments into one bundle, i.e. connate, although not necessarily into a tube, c.f. diadelphous and polyadelphous, c.f. also fasciculate, phalangiate, syngenesious. ("united into tube" in image).

moniliform: cylindrical but constricted at regular intervals, as in a string of beads.

monimioid: a leaf tooth in which the secondary or tertiary vein ends in an opaque persistent glandular cap, not associated with lateral veins (although they seem to be present sometimes - see Hickey & Wolfe 1975), c.f. begonioid, chloranthoid, cucurbitoid, cunonioid, dillenioid, malvoid, platanoid, rosoid, salicoid, spinose, theoid, urticoid, violoid.

monistichous: e.g. of leaves, arranged in a single vertical row along the stem (orthostichy), one-ranked, c.f. two-ranked (distichous), three-ranked (monistichous), spiromonistichous, c.f. also alternate, bijugate, decussate, opposite, pseudoverticillate, spiral, whorled.

monocarpic: (of flowering with respect to architecture), plant flowering and fruiting only once during its lifespan, e.g. Corypha, c.f. hapaxanthic, pleonanthic, also iteroparous, plietesial, semelparous, c.f. (of plant duration) annual, biennial, ephemeral, perennial.

monochasium: of a cymose inflorescence, with branches arising from only one of each pair or bracteoles/prophylls, or from the single bracteole/prophyll, adj. monochasial, see bicolor unit, drepanium, helicoid cyme, rhipidium, scorpioid cyme, c.f. dichasium.

monochlamydeous: of a flower, having only one whorl of perianth parts, usually = 1-whorled, c.f. achlamydeous, dichlamydeous, heterochlamydeous, homochlamydeous.

monoclinous: having staminate and carpellate reproductive organs in the same flower, = perfect as used here, c.f. diclinous.

monocotyledonous: anther wall development in which the primary parietal layer gives rise to two secondary parietal layers, the outer producing the endothecium only, the inner producing cells of the middle layer and tapetum, c.f. basic, dicotyledonous, reduced.

monocotyledons: clade including those flowering plants whose embryo has only one cotyledon (seed leaf) and whose flower is trimerous and pentacyclic, in the past opposed to dicotyledons, see BLA.

monocycly: in monocots, stamens arranged in a single whorls alternating with the petal/inner tepalline whorl, equal or more to the basic tepal number, and derived from more complexly whorled androecia and independently derived from the two-whorled arrangement in the core eudicots - and so needing a different name according to Ronse de Craene (2010), c.f. dicycly, obmonocycly. If used here, simply descriptive and without implication of origin.

monoecious: having the staminate and carpellate reproductive structures in separate flowers but on the same plant, see androdioecious, andromonoecious, gynodioecious, gynomonoecious, c.f. dioecious and homoecious.

monoicious: having antheridium and archegonia on the same gametophytic individual.

monolectic: in bee pollination, when the bee collects pollen only or mostly from a single species of plant (Michener 1979), c.f. oligolectic, polylectic.

monolete: more or less straight scars on the proximal poles of pollen representing the points of junction of the pollen tetrads, weakened areas involved in germination, not occuring in angiosperms, c.f. trilete.

monomerous: often used in cases where the gynoecium is from all the evidence made up of but a single carpel, i.e. the gynoecium is really apocarpous, c.f. mixomerous, pseudomonomerous

monophyletic: of any taxon that includes its common ancestor and all and only its descendents, a monophyletic group is a clade, q.v., c.f. anaphyletic, epiphyletic, paraphyletic, periphyletic, polyphyletic.

monopodial: of growth, with a persistent terminal growing point producing many lateral organs successively, thus a monopodial stem grows in this way, see also indeterminate, racemose (of inflorescences), c.f. sympodial.

monosaccharide: a carbohydrate made up of single hexose or pentose units, see fructose, glucose, and mannose, c.f. disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides.

monosymmetric: a flower with a single plane of symmetry, the number of corolla elements involved in making up the lips can be denoted by formulae like 3:2, i.e., three corolla lobes making up the adaxial/upper lip, two corolla lobes the /abaxial/lower lip, see bilabiate, papilionoid, ringent, slit-monosymmetric (variants), c.f. peloric, c.f. also asymmetric, disymmetric, enantiomorphic, enantiostyly, haplomorphic, oblique, and polysymmetric.

monotelic: of inflorescences, = determinate.

monoterpene lactones = iridoids.

monoterpenoids: with a base of C10 H16, they occur in essential oils and are made up of one or two isoprene rings or an open chain of isoprene units; colorless, water-insoluble, volatile, with fragrant odour.

Limonene, C10 H16.	Geraniol, C10 H18 O.
Myrcene, C10 H16.

monotypic: containing only one taxon of the next lower rank, e.g. applied to a family containing only one genus, c.f. polytypic.

monoxylic: seed plant stems with only a single vascular cylinder that is made up of xylem and phloem, c.f. polyxylic.

morphogenetic zone: a part of the shoot apical meristem consisting of rapidly-dividing cells that surround the initial zone that are recruited for the differentiation of leaf and stem tissues.

morphology: the form and structure of an organism or part of an organism, the study of form and structure, sometimes opposed to anatomy.

motile: actively moving, self-propelled.

mucilages: slimy water-soluble polysaccharides or proteoglycans exuded by plants or plant organs during development, adj. mucilaginous, c.f. gums, latex, oils, resins, waxes.

mucro: a sharp, abrupt terminal point, adj. mucronate, c.f. acute, attenuate, acumen, apiculum, arista, awn, cuneate, caudate, cuspidate, emarginate, muticous, obtuse, retuse, rounded, truncate, c.f. also cordate, hastate, oblique, runcinate, sagittate (esp. of lamina base).

Müllerian body: glycogen-rich food bodies produced at the abaxial base of the petiole of many species of Cecropia (Urticaceae), c.f. Beltian body, colleter (perhaps), pearl gland, snail gland.

multilacunar: of nodal anatomy in angiosperms, where more than three (e.g. 5, 7) leaf gaps are left in the central vascular cylinder when corresponding numbers of leaf traces depart, c.f. split lateral, trilacunar, unlacunar, see also see also flank bridges

multiple access: a kind of key, c.f. polyclave.

multiple fruit: fruits on a common axis derived from the ovaries of several flowers, = aggregate fruit, syncarp, so redundancy, c.f. accessory fruit, simple fruit.

multiplicative: of integuments (i.e. tegmen, testa) in seeds, where cell division and hence increase in thickness occur after fertilisation.

muri: pl. of murus.

muricate: rough on the surface; covered with short, hard tubercles or hard outgrowths of the epidermis, c.f. echinate, prickly, verrucose.

murus: an element of pollen surface ornamentation, a ridge that e.g. separates the lumina in a reticulate grain or forms the striae in a striate grain.

mustard oil glycosides = glucosinolates.

mustard oils = isothiocyanates.

muticous: blunt, awnless, c.f. acute, attenuate, acumen, apiculum, arista, awn, cuneate, caudate, cuspidate, emarginate, mucronate, obtuse, retuse, rounded, truncate, c.f. also hastate, oblique, runcinate, sagittate (esp. of lamina base).

mutualism: a symbiotic association where both partners benefit, a +/+ association, see also trophobiosis, c.f. parasitism, predation.

mycoheterotroph: a plant with a variant of heterotrophic nutrition; the plant, typically lacking chlorophyll, is in close assocation with a fungus, from which it directly or indirectly obtains its nutritional needs, c.f. autotroph, biotroph, hemiparasite, heterotroph, hyperparasite, mixotroph, parasite, saprobe/saprophyte/saprotroph.

mycorrhiza: a mutualistic association between a fungus and a plant, occuring primarily in the roots, the fungi a part of the holobiome/symbiome, see ectomycorrhiza, ectendomycorrhiza, endomycorrhiza, ericoid mycorrhiza, see also eumycorrhizae, paramycorrhizae (in palaeontology), and mycorrhizal network, c.f. endophyte.

mycorrhizal network: where different plants of the same or completely unrelated species share nutrients via common mycorrhizal associates.

my[i]ophilous: of entomophilous flowers pollinated by flies, often with a distinctive syndrome (small, purplish/dark color; dangling projections, etc.), although flies like bee-flies are attracted to very different-looking flowers, c.f. cantharophilous, kleptomyophilous , melittophilous , psychophilous, phalaenophilous, sapromyophilous, sphigophilous.

myricetin: a common flavonol, c.f. kaempferol and quercetin.

Myricetin, C15 H10 O8.

myristic acid: a saturated 14-carbon fatty acid, CH3 (CH2)₁₂ COOH, occurring in many fats.

myrmeco- (prefix): having to do with ants.

myrmecochory: dispersal of the diaspores of a plant by ants, c.f. zoochory in particular and anemochory, atelochory, autochory, hydrochory, myrmecochory, ombrohydrochory, zoochory, see also diplochory.

myrmecodomatium: a term sometimes used for structures like hollow segments of the stem or petiole base, or leaf sheaths or stipules, that are inhabited by ants, see also domatium.

myrmecophyte: loosely used here for a plant in which there is an association, generally mutually advantageous, between it and ants and involving distinctive morphological modifications of the plant; see Webber et al. (2007) for a much more fine-grained approach, distinguishing between myrmecophilic, myrmecophytic in the strict sense, myrmecodomic and myrmecoxenic.

myrmecotroph: a plant that obtains nutrients from ants, whether from their excreta or from the remains of insects the ants dispose of (myrmecotrophy).

myrosin cell: myrosinases are a class of enzyme that can hydrolyse glucosinolates - they can handle thio-linked sugars - yielding distinctive isothiocyanates; they are often found in special cells, myrosin cells.

myxo- (prefix): with mucilage, e.g. myxocarpy and myxospermy, mucilaginous fruits and seeds respectively, the mucilage, especially of seeds, developing only when the seed is moistened.

N

NPP: net primary productivity, production from photosynthesis after taking into account losses occasioned by respiration, c.f. GPP.

nacreous, of cell walls (e.g. of sieve cells) in transverse section, thick, shining and more or less iridescent, layered.

naked: exposed, uncovered; of ovules or seeds exposed on the surface of a megasporophyll, i.e., not enclosed within a carpel, see gymnosperm; of flowers, without a perianth, the old achlamydeous; of protoplasts or gametes, lacking a cell wall; of an ovule that lacks a micropyle, the integuments not meeting or covering the apex of the ovule, c.f. amphistomal, bistomal, endostomal, exostomal, zigzag, of a resting bud not enclosed by bud scales, the leaves surrounding it enlarging to more or less normal size when growth recommences (although the bud itself may be covered with dense hairs, etc., and be very well protected), c.f. perulate.

nanophanerophyte: of life forms, plants with resting buds 25 cm to 3m above the surface of the ground, in contrast with a phanerophyte s. str., but that usually defined as including everything with buds 25 cm or more above the ground...

nanophyll: in ecology, the blade of a leaf or leaflet 25-225mm² in surface area, c.f. leptophyll, macrophyll, megaphyll, mesophyll, microphyll, notophyll.

naphthoquinones: pigments, quinones in which a second aromatic ring is fused to the benzoquinone ring, occuring as free glycosides.

Base structure.

Plumbagin, C11 H8 O3.

1,4-Naphthoquinone, C10 H6 O2.

narrowly: a qualifier of terms used for outlines and plane shapes when the length:breadth ratio is 6:1 - 2.5:1, c.f. broadly, broad-transverse, transverse, the terms qualified being elliptic, obovate, oblong, ovate, rhombic, triangular, trullate.

navicular = boat-shaped.

native: a member of the undisturbed flora of an area, also found elsewhere, c.f. adventive, endemic, introduced, naturalised.

naturalised: a plant that has become well established in an area after being introduced from elsewhere, c.f. adventive, endemic, introduced, native.

neck: part of the archegonium, a column of cells within which are the neck canal cells which latter break down at maturity, material from them being secreted from the pore of the neck, the male gamete travelling down the neck, see archegonial chamber, venter, and egg.

necromass: the mass of dead organisms or parts there of in a particular area, c.f. biomass.

necrotroph: a parasite that kills the host cells, so being essentially saprophytic in its nutrition, c.f. biotroph.

nectar: a sugar-rich fluid secreted by a eccrine or granulocrine mechanism.

nectar guide: markings on the perianth of a flower, whether visibly colored lines and dots or in the ultraviolet, that guide a pollinator to the nectar or other floral reward.

nectarium: a collective term for all the nectaries found in a single flower (c.f. pollinium/pollinarium).

nectary: a more or less localized multicellular glandular structure that secretes nectar, when in the flower often with stomata and a phloem supply, adj. nectariferous, the terms for "types" of nectaries are complex indeed (Schmid 1988): see extrafloral and floral nectaries, also extranuptial, nuptial nectaries, also extrareproductive, reproductive nectaries, also gynoecial and receptacular nectaries, also septal nectary.

needle-like: ± round in cross section, relatively long and thin with a l:w ratio at least 12:1, as in raphides.

neighbour cell: in an epidermis, the cells immediately adjacent to a guard cell (contact cell is a synonym), see also bulliform cells, pavement cells, stomata, c.f. subsidiary cells.

neoflavonoids: flavonoids in which ring B is attached to C-4 or as 4-phenylcoumarins.

Neoflavonoid base.

Calophyllide, C26 H24 O5.

neoformation: used to refer to leaves in an innovation that develop from primordia that were initiated earlier during the growth of that same innovation, c.f. preformation.

neofunctionalization: after duplication of a gene or genome, when one gene copy takes on a completely new function, c.f. subfunctionalization.

neolignans: dimers derived from precursors related to those involved in the formation of lignin, i.e. the union of two C6-C units of phenylpropane, cinnamic acid, or their derivatives, dimerization being via the aromatic rings instead by the propanoid tail, c.f. lignans.

Eusiderin, C22 H26 O6.

neoteny: when reproduction is relatively speeded up because somatic development is delayed, c.f. progenesis.

nerve = vein.

net-veined = reticulate-veined.

neuter: sterile, e.g. of flowers in which neither the androecium nor the gynoecium is functional in reproduction, c.f. carpellate, perfect, staminate.

neutral oil: non-volatile oil made up of triglycerides, c.f. essential oil.

nexine (Erdtman term): of pollen grains, the inner, non-sculptured part of the exine which lies below the sexine, c.f. also perine.

nexine 1 (Erdtman term) = foot layer of pollen grains.

nexine 2 (Erdtman term) = endexine of pollen grains.

nicotine: a pyridine alkaloid.

nitid = shining.

nitriles: non-toxic products of isothiocyanates with a R-C[triple bond]N structure.

nitrogenous anthocyanins = betalains.

nocturnal: of flowers, opening only at night, c.f. diurnal.

nodal anatomy: specifically, the arrangement of leaf gaps and leaf traces (see also reparatory strand) as the vascular tissue from the central stele or vascular cylinder departs to supply the leaves, see multilacunar, split lateral, trilacunar, unilacunar, see also see also flank bridges.

node: the level (transverse plane) of a stem at which one or more leaves and associated axillary buds arise, c.f. internode.

node-based: a way of defining a clade in which a node on a cladogram is the defining point, e.g. the clade stemming from the most recent ancestor of species 1 and species 2, c.f. apomorphy-based, stem-based.

nodule: a more or less hard and irregular swelling, and in nodules caused by nitrogen-fixing bacteria in Fabaceae, of several more or less distinct morphologies, aeschynomenoid, caesalpinioid, crotalarioid, desmodioid, and lupin type, c.f. fibrous root, hair root, magnolioid root, nodule, tap root, and tuberous root.

nomen conservandum: a name of a family, genus or species that has been formally accepted under the International Code for Botanical Nomenclature as the correct name contrary to the usual principles of botanical nomenclature, abbreviated nom. cons.

non-articulated: of a laticifer, multinucleate but developing from a single cell, elongating greatly during plant growth, lacking cross walls, not to intricately branched, very rarely anastomosing, c.f. articulated.

non-hydrolysable tannins = proanthocyanidins.

nonporous: of wood that contains only tracheids, c.f. porous.

non-protein amino acids: amino acids not associated with proteins, many important in the storage and transport of soluble nitrogen, often present in large quantities in seeds, sometimes poisonous.

Cucurbitine, C5 H10 N2 O2.

norbelladine alkaloids: a group of alkaloids derived from tyrosine and phenylalanine.

Norbelladine, C15 H17 N O3.

normal: used of iridoids, derived from deoxyloganic acid, either directly without oxgenation (normal Route I, carboxylated iridoids) or from epi-deoxyloganic acid directly without decarboxylation (normal Route II).

Normapolles: a pollen type common in Cretaceous and lower Palaeogene times, oblate and triaperturate (triporate) with protruding, elaborate and strongly thickened aperture regions, the apertures themselves often being formed from expansions of the granular infratectal layer (and hence the pollen is triangular in transverse section), etc., produced by Fagales (see Friis et al. 2003a).

nortriterpenoids: subclass of triterpenoids in which some degredation has occurred resulting in a loss of four to eleven carbon atoms; includes limonoids, bufadienolides, cardenolides and quassinoids.

Nortriterpenoid base.

notophyll: in ecology, the blade of a leaf or leaflet 2025-4500 mm² in surface area, e.g. an elliptic blade from ca 3 in. or 7.6 cm to 5 in. or 12.7 cm long, c.f. leptophyll, macrophyll, megaphyll, mesophyll, microphyll, nanophyll.

notorhizal = incumbent.

nototribic: in pollination, when the pollen is deposited on the back of the visiting animal, c.f. sternotribic.

nucellar beak: a structure in the ovule where nucellar tissue protrudes through the micropyle, varying in origin, c.f. epistase, hypostase, nucellar beak, nucellar cap, nucellar endothelium, obturator.

nucellar cap: formed by the periclinal division of epidermal cells of the ovule immediately above the megasporocyte(s)/embryo sac, a feature that is independent of whether the ovule is crassinucellate or tenuinucellate, c.f. epistase, hypostase, nucellar beak, nucellar endothelium, nucellar pad, obturator, podium, ponticulus, postament, also crassinucellate, incompletely tenuinucellate, nucellar cap, tenuinucellate, weakly crassinucellate (different degrees of development of the nucellus or of the epidermis covering it).

nucellar endothelium: a structure in the ovule where the epidermal cells underneath the integument(s) are enlarged or otherwise distinctive, a feature that is independent of whether the ovule is crassinucellate or tenuinucellate, c.f. epistase, hypostase, nucellar beak, nucellar cap, nucellar pad, obturator, podium, ponticulus, postament, also crassinucellate, incompletely tenuinucellate, nucellar cap, tenuinucellate, weakly crassinucellate (different degrees of development of the nucellus or of the epidermis covering it).

nucellar pad: a structure in the ovule made up of radially-elongated epidermal cells at the tip of the nucellus underneath the micropyle, a feature that is independent of whether the ovule is crassinucellate or tenuinucellate, c.f. embryo sac, epistase, hypostase, nucellar beak, nucellar cap, nucellar endothelium, obturator, podium, ponticulus, postament, also crassinucellate, incompletely tenuinucellate, tenuinucellate, weakly crassinucellate (different degrees of development of the nucellus or of the epidermis covering it).

nucellus: the central tissue of an ovule of a seed plant, tissue not of epidermal origin that more or less surrounds first the megaspore(s) (epidermis + nucellus + megaspore(s) = megasporangium) and subsequently the embryo sac, sometimes much reduced, see crassinucellate, incompletely tenuinucellate, nucellar cap, nucellar endothelium, nucellar pad, tenuinucellate, weakly crassinucellate (different degrees of development of the nucellus or of the epidermis covering it), also epistase, hypostase, nucellar beak, nucellar pad, c.f. antiraphe, chalaza, funicle, integument, micropyle, obturator, podium, ponticulus, postament, raphe.

nuclear: of endosperm formation, where nuclear divisions are at least initially not accompanied by cell wall formation, a syncytium being formed, c.f. cellular, helobial.

nucleotype: set of phenotypic traits influenced by the amount of DNA in a cell, irrespective of the gene content of that DNA, c.f. cytotype and karyotype.

nucleus: the major cell organelle, containing linearly-organized DNA that is part of the plant's genome.

nudelspritze: as in a kind of secondary pollen presentation where the pollen is extruded in strands.

numerous: in the descriptions of floral parts, = many.

Nuphar-type: an embryo sac variant, = the Schisandra type.

nuptial nectary: a nectary that is involved in attracting pollinators, whether inside or ouside the flower - a functional definition - c.f. extranuptial nectary.

nursery pollination: a variant of entomophilous pollination in which the pollinator lays eggs on the ovary as it pollinates the plant; some of the developing seeds provide food for the developing larvae.

nut: a hard, dry, indehiscent fruit formed from two or more carpels but containing only one seed, a rather vague term, and really an achene in the broad sense, c.f. achene s. str., caryopsis, cypsela, utricle.

nutlet: lit. "a small nut", often used to refer to any hard and more or less rounded mericarp, e.g. those of Lamiaceae, so not really a small nut at all...

nyctinasty: the response of plant parts, particularly leaves and flowers, to darkness ("sleep movements").

O

ob- (prefix): the opposite to the condition described in the rest of the word, e.g., obovate, of a leaf, etc., with the widest point above the middle, rather than below, the latter being ovate.

obdiplostemonous: androecium with twice as many stamens as petals and borne in two whorls, the outer whorl opposite the petals or inner whorl of tepals, c.f. diplostemonous, haplostemonous, obhaplostemonous - note that Bachelier and Endress (2009) give a rather different definition: a flower in which there are two whorls of stamens, and the carpels are antepetalous - used only for isomerous flowers or flowers in which the single fertile carpel is opposite a petal.

obhaplostemonous: androecium with as many stamens as petals, the former borne in a single whorl opposite the petals or inner whorl of tepals, c.f. diplostemonous, haplostemonous, obdiplostemonous.

oblate: a general pollen shape descriptor, a radially symmetrical grain in which the polar axis is shorter than the equatorial diameter, i.e. it is shorter than wide, c.f. boat-shaped, globose, prolate, spherical.

obligate: of parasites unable to survive without the host, c.f. facultative.

oblique: of general floral symmetry, although the flower may be monosymmetric, the major plane of symmetry of that flower is obligue to the axis that bears it, c.f. asymmetric, disymmetric, enantiomorphic, enantiostylous, polysymmetric.

oblique: of the basal part of the lamina of a leaf or leaflet, larger on one side of the midrib than on the other, i.e. asymmetrical, c.f. acute, attenuate, acumen, apiculum, arista, awn, cuneate, caudate, cuspidate, emarginate, mucronate, muticous, obtuse, retuse, rounded, truncate, c.f. also hastate, runcinate, sagittate (esp. of lamina base).

oblong: a term used for outlines and plane shapes, with length:breadth ratio 2:1 - 3:2, the sides almost parallel, see broadly, broad-transverse, narrowly, transverse, c.f. elliptic, obovate, ovate, rhombic, triangular, trullate.

obovate: a term used for outlines and plane shapes, with length:breadth ratio 2.5:1 - 3:2, the broadest part is above the middle, see broadly, broad-transverse, narrowly, transverse, c.f. elliptic, oblong, ovate, rhombic, triangular, trullate.

obmonocycly: in monocots, stamens arranged in a single whorl opposite to the petals/inner tepals, independently derived from the comparable obdiplostemonous arrangement in the core eudicots - and so needing a different name according to Ronse de Craene (2010), c.f. dicycly, monocycly, obmonocycly. Not used here; for this general arrangement, see obdiplostemonous.

obsolescent: non-functional but not reduced to a rudiment, c.f. obsolete, rudimentary, vestigial.

obsolete: reduced to a rudiment, or completely lacking, c.f. obsolescent, rudimentary, vestigial.

obturator: an outgrowth of the funicle (commonest), placenta, or integument, etc., that forms a bridge between the micropyle and other tissues and is believed to faciltate fertilisation; the ponticulus is a variant. When the term "obturator" is used, its origin should be made clear, c.f. antiraphe, chalaza, epistase, female gametophyte, funicle, hypostase, nucellar beak, nucellar cap, nucellar endothelium, nucellar pad, obturator, podium, ponticulus, postament, raphe (parts).

obtuse: bluntly pointed at the apex, the converging edges separated by an angle greater than 90^o, c.f. acute, attenuate, acumen, apiculum, arista, awn, cuneate, caudate, cuspidate, emarginate, mucronate, muticous, retuse, rounded, truncate, c.f. also cordate, hastate, oblique, runcinate, sagittate (esp. of lamina base).

obvolute: of leaf aestivation, a leaf, or leaflets of opposite sides of a compound leaf, folded in half along the midline so that the adaxial surface disappears from view, i.e. convolute or conduplicate, with one side inside and one side outside a similarly folded leaf/leaflet on the opposite side of the stem/rhachis, which in turn similarly encloses the next leaf/leaflet, and so on, c.f. convolute and equitant.

ochrea, ocrea: a stipular sheath encircling the node in some Polygonaceae, whether scarious or not, either apply the term to any stipular stucture like this, or (better) = sheathing stipule, or an inflated structure developing between the sheath and petiole of the leaf of some rattan palms, basically a souped-up ligule.

odd-pinnate: e.g. of a pinnately compound leaf, with the leaflets more or less in pairs and the rachis terminated by a leaflet, hence an odd number of leaflets, c.f. even-pinnate. (as imparipinnate).

Oenothera: an embryo sac type, the types based on variation in megasporogensis and megagametogenesis, unisporic (micropylar cell), 4-celled (no antipodals, only one polar cell), c.f. Adoxa, Allium, Drusa, Endymion, Fritillaria, Penaea, Peperomia, Plumbagella, Plumbago, Polygonum.

O-glycosyl: when the sugar is attached to the aglycone by a -O- bond (see the bottom part of the structure below), easy to hydrolyse, c.f. C-glycosyl.

Quercetin 3-glucoside, C21 H20 O12.

ohnolog: gene duplicates originating from a whole genome duplication (after Sesumu Ohno), c.f. ortholog, paralog.

oils: fatty acid and glycerol, c.f. gums, mucilages, latex, resins, waxes.

oleoside: type of secoiridoid monoterpene.

Oleoside, C16 H22 O11.

oligo- (prefix): few.

oligolectic: in bee pollination, when the bee collects pollen only or mostly from a few "related" (genus or family) plants (Michener 1979), c.f. monolectic, polylectic.

oligomerous: of parts of a flower, fewer than expected/"typical", c.f. pleiomerous, polymerous.

oligosaccharide: a carbohydrate made up of three to ten sugar units of the same or different kinds, see raffinose and stachyose, c.f. monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides.

ombrohydrochory: dispersal of diaspores by water, specifically, by the action of rain falling on a plant structure, c.f. hydrochory in particular and anemochory, atelochory, autochory, myrmecochory, zoochory in general.

omniaperturate: of pollen grains that apparently lack any apertures, also called inaperturate, c.f. colpate, colporate, polyforate, pantoporate, porate, pororate, sulculate, tenuitate, trichotomosulcate, ulcerate and zona-aperturate.

oncus: a lens-shaped structure, a thickening of the intine, not resistant to acetolysis and found beneath the apertures in pollen grains, see also Zwischenkörper.

one-ranked: leaves borne singly and in a single orthostichy up the stem, c.f. spiromonistichous, two-ranked (distichous), three-ranked (tristichous), also bijugate, decussate, opposite, pseudoverticillate, spiral, whorled.

ontogeny: the development of a single organism, i.e. the sequence of morphologies through which it passes during its lifetime, c.f. phylogeny.

oogamy: sexual reproduction in which the egg is relatively large, immobile and lacks flagellae and is fertilised by a smaller and motile male gamete that usually has flagellae.

open: of aestivation, the edges of the floral parts concerned not overlapping in bud, i.e. not imbricate, c.f. crumpled, decussate, induplicate, reduplicate, valvate.

closed: of an inflorescence in which the axis does not terminate in a flower, continuing to make lateral meristems, stopping only on its death, c.f. closed inflorescence, c.f. also indeterminate and monopodial.

open meristem: of a root apical meristem in which all the tissue regions of the root can be traced to a single group of initials/cells, c.f. closed meristem, intermediate meristem.

open: of minor vein phloem anatomy where there are 10-100 plasmodesmata/mm² between bundle sheath and companion cells, movement of photosynthesate probably being symplastic, c.f. closed.

open: of a leaf sheath that forms a cylinder around the stem but is slit down the side opposite the attachment of the blade, c.f. closed.

open: of a vascular bundle in which not all the cells differentiate, some remaining undifferentiated and meristematic and ultimately producing the vascular cambium, c.f. closed.

open: of the stem vascular system, in which the sympodia are discrete, there being no fusion between vascular bundles, c.f. closed, intermediate.

open: of leaf venation, = dendritic, c.f. closed.

operculum: a cap formed by fusion or cohesion of perianth parts and covering the stamens and carpels in the bud, becoming detached at maturity; a more or less hardened, lid-like portion of the seed coat or fruit, esp. the endocarp of the latter, that becomes detached during germination or at maturity, c.f. water gap.

operculum: a distincly delimited and thickened ectexinous or sexinous structure that covers part of an ectoaperture of a pollen grain, c.f. pontoperculum.

operculum: in a "bryophyte", a lid-like structure on top of the sporangium which falls off at maturity, see also calyptra, columella, operculum, peristome, seta, stomium.

opposite: of leaves or other lateral organs, borne at the same level but on opposite sides of the stem, the pairs decussate, often includes bijugate, and in the characterisations here also whorled, c.f. also alternate, distichous,geminate, pseudoverticillate, spiral, spiromonistichous, tristichous.

opposite: of floral parts, on the same radius, e.g. used when describing the position of stamens with respect to petals (oppositipetalous), sepals (oppositisepalous), etc., c.f. alternate.

opposite: of pits arranged in horizontal (and/or vertical?) pairs or rows and, when crowded, having a more or less square outline in surface view, c.f. alternate.

ora pl. of os.

orbicular: circular or nearly so.

orbicules: minute granules of sporopollenin secreted by the tapetum, sometimes found on pollen grains.

orchids: for commonly-used terms more or less specific to orchid flowers, see caudicula, column, hamulus, incumbent, labellum, rostellum, massulae, sectile, stipes, tegula, viscidium, also epichile, hypochile.

order: in the taxonomic hierarchy, a monophyletic grouping of families, or sometimes a single family with no apparent close relatives, the name with a termination -ales, the major taxonomic rank between family and class, c.f. also genus, species.

organ: a discrete part of a plant, rather little used, c.f. cell, tissue.

ornithophilous: of zoöphilous flowers, with distinctive morphology for pollination by birds (red color, long tube, no scent, etc.), c.f. cantharophilous, chiropterophilous, entomophilous, kleptomyophilous , melittophilous , myophilous, ornithophilous, phalaenophilous, sapromyophilous, sphigophilous.

orobanchoside (orobanchin): a phenylpropanoid, an ester of caffeic acid, two molecules and two sugar molecules also being involved.

Orobanchoside, C29 H34 O15.

orthodox: of germination, the seed tolerating drying or freezing, also applied to pollen germination, in both cases there being at least some dormancy, germination not necessarily being immediate, c.f. recalcitrant, see also after-ripening of seeds.

orthophyllous: of plant growth forms, it does not mean 'straight-leaved', see perhaps the general meaning of mesophyte, so not recommended.

ortholog: genes in two species descended from the one sequence in the ancestral species, c.f. ohnolog, paralog.

orthostichy: of the arrangement of parts along an axis, a vertical line joining an organ to the next organ immediately above it on the stem, c.f. parastichy, c.f. also genetic spiral.

orthotropous (of an ovule) = atropous/straight.

orthotropic: of growth, negatively geotropic, i.e. the stem growing more or less erect, c.f. ascending, plagiotropic.

os, pl. orae = endoaperture.

osmolyte: low molecular weight organic compounds that are very soluble and non-toxic even at high concentrations, and since they do not interfere with normal metabolic functions they can accumulate in a cell, so helping to deal with osmotic stress in e.g. halophytes; see also osmoprotection (Slama et al. 2015).

osteosclereid: a longish but not very narrow sclereid cell with more or less developed rather short, stout branches at both ends, c.f. astrosclereid, filiform sclereid, brachysclereid, macrosclereid, trichosclereid.

ostiole: an opening or pore, e.g. of a microsporangium or anther as it dehisces (little used in flowering plants), or at the apex of a fig.

outer bark: a non-technical term for the outer part of the bark, technically the periderm, c.f. inner bark.

outgroup: any group that is outside of the clade of immediate interest, more specifically, a taxon or tax that have been included in a study to root the tree or to polarise the characters of the ingroup, c.f. in group, sister group.

ovary: the basal portion of a carpel or group of fused carpels, that encloses the ovule(s), see also placentation, roof, c.f. stigma, style.

ovate: a term used for outlines and plane shapes, with length:breadth ratio is 2.5:1 - 3:2, broadest below the middle, see broadly, broad-transverse, narrowly, transverse, c.f. elliptic, oblong, obovate, rhombic, triangular, trullate; ovoid, egg-shaped, is ovate in three dimensions and with a rounded apex and base, c.f. pyriform.

ovulate: (of a flower that does not produce fertile pollen) = carpellate.

ovule: a eusporangium in a seed plant enveloped by one or two integuments, a megasporangium within which one (rarely more) megaspores are formed and later the female gametophyte or embryo sac develops, and which finally develops into a seed after fertilisation, or "an indehiscent, integumented megasporangium containing a single functional megaspore" (Sporne 1974, p. 18), see antiraphe, chalaza, epistase, funicle, hypostase, integument (see also endothelium), lagenostome, megaspore, micropyle, nucellus, pollen chamber, obturator, podium, ponticulus, postament, raphe (parts), see also amphitropous, anatropous, atropous, campylotropous, circinotropous, hemitropous ("types"), and apotropous/epitropous/pleurotropous or antitropous/syntropous, curvature of the ovule with respect to the axis or carpel margin respectively.

ovuliferous: bearing ovules, e.g. applied to scales in a megasporangiate cone in gymnosperms, c.f. bract scale.

ovum = egg.

oxalic acid: COOH - COOH, a common organic acid in plants, oaxalte itself is usually found in plants as calcium oxalate.

P

PEB: plastid-encoded nuclear polymerase.

p-coumaric acid: a hydroxycinnamic acid derived from L-phenylyalanine, involved in formation of phenylpropanoids, readily convertible into salicylic acid, c.f. caffeic acid, ferulic acid, p-coumaric acid, sinapic acid.

Coumaric acid, C9 H8 O3.

P-protein: protein found in the cytoplasm of sieve tubes in the phloem of angiosperms along with sieve tube plastids, see forisome.

pachy- (prefix): thick.

pachycaul: of trees, with particularly stout trunk and branches, c.f. leptocaul.

pachymorph: of bamboos, where the rhizome is sympodial, and thicker than the culms, c.f. leptomorph.

paedomorphosis: a heterochronic change in which a part or parts of an adult resemble those of an ancestral juvenile, c.f. peramorphosis.

palaeopolyploid: a polyploidy event that took place a long time - ca 20 m.y. or more - ago, c.f. mesopolyploid, see also allopolyploid, aneuploid, agmatoploid, autopolyploid, diploid, demiduplication, dysploid, endopolyploidy, haploid, polyploid, symploid.

palea: in a grass floret, the upper of the two "bracts" enclosing a flower (the lower is the lemma), possibly a prophyll/bracteole, but more likely representing two connate perianth members of the outer whorl, see also glume (of a spikelet), lodicule.

paleaceous: chaffy, covered by or made up of dry, membranous scales.

palisade: especially of leaf mesophyll, but of tissues in general, where the cells are elongated, closely packed, and upright, c.f. spongy.

palmate: a compound leaf divided into several leaflets which arise at the same point, there being no rachis, see also binate, bipinnate, even-pinnate, odd-pinnate, reins, tripinnate, c.f. bundle compound, pedate and pinnate.

palmate: of venation, a general term used in the descriptions for situations where there is a more or less well developed midrib and the secondary veins depart at the base, but are not notably close and do not converge at the apex, see acrodromous, actinodromous, c.f. parallel, pinnate.

palmatifid: of a leaf, deeply (but not completely) divided into several lobes which arise (almost) at the same level, c.f. pinnatifid.

palmatinerved = actinodromous venation in particular, palmate venation in general.

palmatisect: a condition intermediate between palmate and palmatifid, with the green tissue of the lamina completely divided into several segments, but the segments not fully separated at the base.

palmitic acid: a 16-carbon saturated fatty acid found in most fats and oils, particularly associated with stearic acid.

palynology: the scientific study of pollen.

pangenome: all the genes of a group, particularly species and below, the focus here is not on the holobiont, i.e. an individual plant and all the microbes associated with it, for which, c.f. hologenome.

panicle: of an inflorescence, a compound inflorescence in which the flowers are borne on branches of the main axis or on further branches of these, but ultimately the branches are terminated by flowers, adj. paniculate, often used loosely, indeterminate and much branched, c.f. botryoid, cyme, raceme.

panicle (in Poaceae): of an inflorescence in which the primary axis bears secondary axes with pedicellate spikelets, c.f. raceme, see also panicle, pedicel, peduncle.

panto-: (prefix), a term used for the position of aperture of the pollen grain, of apertures, usually more than three, borne scattered over the whole surface of the grain, not just the equatorial axis, as in pantoporate (for pantoporate pollen, see also metareticulate), c.f. ana-, cata-, encircling, and stephano-.

papaverine: an isoquinoline alkaloid.

papilionoid/papilionaceous: of a monosymmetric flower, butterfly-like, with keel, standard, and wings, c.f. bilabiate, personate, slit-monosymmetric.

papilla: a small, elongated protuberance on the surface of an organ, usually projection from an epidermal cell, adj. papillose.

pappus: a tuft of hairs on a fruit; in Asteraceae, a tuft (or ring) of hairs or scales borne above the inferior ovary and outside the corolla and possibly representing the calyx.

papyraceous: like parchment in texture, c.f. chaffy, chartaceous, coriaceous, scarious.

paracarpous: of a syncarpous gynoecium where the carpellary units are congenitally united only by their margins, the placentation thus being parietal, c.f. coenocarpous. (right hand image).

paraclade: a lateral branch of a synflorescence which ends in an inflorescence that has the same structure as the inflorescence on the main axis, c.f. coflorescence, enrichment zone, florescence, c.f. also inflorescence.

paracytic: of stomata, with two subsidiary cells surrounding and parallel to the guard cells, c.f. laterocylic and brachyparacytic, see also actinocytic, allelocytic, anisocytic, anomocytic, cyclocytic, diacytic, helicocytic, laterocytic (parallelocytic may be a variant of this), staurocytic, stephanocytic and tetracytic.

paracytic s.l.: in a general classification of mature stomatal morphologies, including all those that have one or more pairs of lateral subsidiary cells, i.e. subsidiary cells that are parallel to the stomatal axis, c.f. anomocytic and stephanocytic s.l.. In the list above, including brachyparacytic, laterocylic, laterocytic and parallelocytic,

parallel: of leaf venation, as used in the descriptions a general term for leaves in which there are several veins approximately equal in prominence that run more or less parallel the length of the blade, whether initially recurved or not or converging at the apex of the blade or not, inc. actinodromous, paralleldromous, c.f. palmate, pinnate.

parallelism: a feature that has evolved independently, but the instances are similar enough to pass Remane's criteria of similarity ("homology"), in particular they are similar at the level of special properties, having a similar genetic underpinning; a kind of homoplasy, c.f. convergence, hemiplasy.

parallelocytic: of stomata, with an alternating complex of three or more C-shaped subsidiary cells of graded sizes parallel to guard cells, i.e., a variant of allelocytic, c.f. diallelocytic.

parallelodromous: of leaf venation, with all veins approximately equal in prominence and running closely parallel to the apex of the blade, c.f. acrodromous, actinodromous, brochidodromous, campylodromous, cladodromous, craspedodromous, dichotomous, eucamptodromous, flabellate, semicraspedodromous, simple-craspedodromous.

parallel-veined: a rather loose term describing leaves with venation in which parallel veins predominate, even although these may be linked by cross veins, c.f. reticulate-veined.

paralogy: similarity between d.n.a. sequences/genes in an organism because of their origin in a duplication within the genome, c.f. ohnolog, ortholog.

paramycorrhizae: mycorrhizae that are found in thalli and shoot systems, a term sometimes used by palaeontologists, a part of the holobiome, c.f. eumycorrhizae.

parapatric: of distributions of two taxa or populations, having non-overlapping but contiguous ranges, c.f. allopatric, sympatric.

paraphyletic: a taxon made up of members which, given a particular phylogenetic tree and classification based on it, include only but not all the descendents of a common ancestor, likely to be a grade, c.f. anaphyletic, epiphyletic, monophyletic, periphyletic, polyphyletic.

parasite: a heterotrophic organism living on or in a different organism and deriving nourishment from it, a +/- asssociation, and the parasite is usually (much) smaller than its host, see facultative, obligate, c.f. autotroph, biotroph, hemiparasite, heterotroph, hyperparasite, mixotroph, myco-heterotroph, saprobe/saprophyte/saprotroph, also necrotroph, c.f. also other kinds of symbiotic associations, mutualism, predation.

parasorbic acid: a lactone.

parastichy: a spiral linking primordia by some constant in their order of development, see contact number, contact parastichy, genetic spiral, also antidromous, heterodromous and homodromous (change in direction on the one plant), c.f. orthostichy.

paratact: of cochleate aestivation, the petal with its two edges outside those of the adjacent petals immediately next to the one with the two edges both inside, c.f. ascending, descending, and apotact.

paratracheal: of axial parenchyma, associated with the vessels, c.f. apotracheal, see aliform, banded.

parenchyma: plant tissue consisting of little-elongated living cells that are relatively compactly arranged and unspecialised in function and usually have cellulosic walls, sometimes rather more elongated and with tapering ends (and then called prosenchyma), c.f. aerenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, see also xylem parenchyma.

parenchyma sheath: a parenchymatous, single-layered bundle sheath surrounding a vascular bundle, homologous to the endodermis, c.f. mestome sheath, starch sheath.

parichnos system: interconnected air canals/aerenchyma in stem and roots of usually emergent plants growing in swampy environments.

parietal: attached to the margins of a structure; of the placentation or arrangement of the ovules in an ovary of a syncarpous gynoecium (inapplicable if the gynoecium is pseudomonomerous), the ovules being attached to placentae on the wall of the ovary, c.f. apical, axile, basal, free central, intrusive-parietal, laminar, marginal.

parietal cell: of ovule, development, referring to the cell(s) cut off from the archesporial cell(s) prior to meiosis and forming part of the nucellus (in the ovule) and the endothecium (in the anther).

parietal (tapetum) = glandular.

paripinnate = even pinnate.

Paris-type arbuscular mycorrhiza: an arbuscular mycorrhiza association between a fungus and a plant root where the hyphae are mostly intracellular, forming coiled structures within the plant cells, but often not arbuscules or vesicles, c.f. Arum type.

-partite: divided almost to the base into segments (commonly applied to a style or leaf blade).

parthenocarpy: development of a mature fruit without fertilisation of ovules.

passage cells: cells of the endodermis opposite the protoxylem that remain thin-walled and retain their Casparian band, or a similar short cell in the exodermis, this sometimes adjacent to a tilosome.

patent = erect.

patrinoside: a route II iridoid.

pauci- (prefix): few.

pavement cell: in an epidermis, unspecialized mature epidermal cells, see also bulliform cells, neighbour cells, pavement cells, stomata.

paxillate: of fine venation in which the areoles occur in oriented fields, often appearing as if laid down by a series of brush strokes.

pea-like (of a flower) = papilionoid.

pearl gland or pearl body: a small, sessile or shortly-stalked, spherical, often shining, multicellular gland containing oils and sugars and eaten, hence a food body (as in Vitaceae), c.f.Beltian body, colleter (perhaps), Müllerian body, snail gland.

pectin: a highly hydrophilic polysaccharide built up of monomers of alpha-galacturonic acid, an important component of cell walls, also a major component of polleen Zwischenkörper, c.f. amyloid, callose, cellulose, hemicellulose, inulin, polyol, starch.

pectinate: comb-like.

pedate: a compound leaf in which leaflets develop successively from the basiscopic edge of the preceding order leaflet, i.e. it is basically sympodial in structure (Kaplan 1997, vol. 2: chap. 17), c.f. bundle compound,palmate and pinnate.

pedestal: a structure that develops from the placenta that support the seed, c.f. funicle.

pedicel: the "stalk" of a flower, i.e. the basal part of the ultimate branch of the inflorescence, often subtended by a bract and bearing one or two bracteole(s), c.f. inflorescence axis, peduncle, rachilla.

pedicel (in Poaceae): the stalk of a spikelet, see also, panicle, pedicel, peduncle, raceme.

pedium = foot layer.

pedoconnective: in Melastomataceae, an elaboration of the stamen connective between the base of the anther thecae and their insertion on the filament.

peduncle: that part of the axis of an inflorescence below the insertion of any flowers or inflorescence branches and above the uppermost node with a foliage leaf or leaves, loosely, the "stalk" of the inflorescence, and in that sense to be compared with the pedicel, the "stalk" of the flower, see also scape, c.f. inflorescence axis, rachilla, sculpture elements.

peduncle (in Poaceae): the stalk of a raceme or of a cluster of spikelets, see also panicle, pedicel, peduncle.

pelargonidin: an anthocyanin.

pellucid: transparent.

pellucid-punctate: e.g. of a leaf blade with whitish dots through which some light comes, see also punctate, puncticulate.

peloria: of a flower, although polysymmetric, in its immediate phylogenetic and/or morphological context, it would be expected to be monosymmetric, e.g. flowers of some species of Plantaginaceae, including the flowers of the eponymous mutant of Linaria vulgaris, or the terminal flowers borne at the end of a raceme in Digitalis purpurea.

peloton: an undifferentiated bundle of fungal hyphae found inside a plant cell in an endomycorrhizal association, see also ptyophagy and tolypophagy.

peltate: of any stalked structure, where the stalk is attached on the surface (usually the abaxial), not to the margin, see epipeltate and hypopeltate.

Penaea: an embryo sac type, the types based on variation in megasporogensis and megagametogenesis, tetrasporic, 16-celled (all haploid, four peripheral groups of three cells each and four polar cells), c.f. Adoxa, Allium, Drusa, Endymion, Fritillaria, Oenothera, Peperomia, Plumbagella, Plumbago, Polygonum.

pendulous: drooping; of ovules, especially those attached at or near the apex of the loculus and so borne pendulous on an apical placenta, c.f. erect.

penicillate: tufted, rather like an artist's brush.

penninerved = pinnate venation.

penta- (prefix): five of whatever is qualified by the prefix.

pentamerous: especially of a flower, having five segments or parts in each perianth whorl, often stamens in five or multiples of five, and quite often carpels also, c.f. tetramerous and trimerous in particular.

pentose: a five-carbon aldose sugar, e.g. arabinose, ribose and xylose, c.f. diose, triose and hexose.

Peperomia: an embryo sac type, the types based on variation in megasporogensis and megagametogenesis, tetrasporic, 16-nucleate, commonly ten-celled (egg, two synergids, 6 accessory cells, and a 7 nucleate polar cell, but also other configurations - see Madrid & Friedman 2010), c.f. Adoxa, Allium, Drusa, Endymion, Fritillaria, Oenothera, Penaea, Plumbagella, Plumbago, Polygonum, Schisandra.